This chapter provides a general overview of the structure and workings of the different types of international criminal courts and tribunals. It first introduces the basic types of international criminal tribunal as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each. It then outlines the forms of jurisdiction; considers in more detail the ways in which the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court (ICC) may be engaged and the limitations which are inherent in its statute on when it may proceed with an investigation or trial; and examines the structure of the ICC as a representative international criminal tribunal, which is internally divided into judicial, prosecutorial, and administrative organs.
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4. Jurisdiction and structure of international criminal courts and tribunals
Chapter
18. Consumer protection
This chapter examines how consumers are protected when they go online. It examines the extensive protections offered by the Consumer Rights Directive to distance agreements (including online agreements). The rules on jurisdiction, choice of law, and enforcement are examined alongside what rights the consumer has to receive information and to cancel contracts agreed at a distance. In addition, this chapter examines the suite of rights created by the Consumer Rights Act 2015 and, in particular, the new provisions therein which digital content (including software, apps, and in-game content among others). The chapter continues with a discussion of the regulation of unsolicited commercial communications or spam, including a discussion of the Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications, GDPr, and the proposed ePrivacy Regulation. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the proposed online sales and Digital Content Directives.
Chapter
7. The Structure of the Tribunals
This chapter examines the jurisdiction and structure of tribunals. It then considers two very different tribunals through the use of case studies, namely the Employment Tribunals and the Investigatory Powers Tribunal. Tribunals have existed for many years but have traditionally operated as an oversight system for administrative issues. In recent years, the number of tribunals has increased and their work has begun to involve more complicated legal questions. Tribunals are now, in essence, a parallel system of dispute resolution and their complexity is recognized by the fact that their presiding officers now bear the title of ‘judge’. This chapter examines this parallel judicial system and identifies similarities between and differences from court justice.
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12. Contracts Void at Common Law on Grounds of Public Policy
M P Furmston
This chapter examines the three types of contract that are treated by the courts as void: contracts to oust the jurisdiction of the courts; contracts prejudicial to the status of marriage; and contracts in restraint of trade. The legal consequences of such contracts are also discussed.
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17. Boundaries of Judicial Review
Sir William Wade and Christopher Forsyth
This chapter discusses the scope of judicial review. Judicial review is a procedure for obtaining the remedies specified in the Senior Courts Act 1981, namely the quashing order, the prohibiting order, and the mandatory order and declaration and injunction. The scope of judicial review, therefore, is the same as the scope of these remedies. Their boundaries, as set out already, are fairly clear, but in the non-statutory area they are uncertain.
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8. Jurisdiction Over Fact and Law
Sir William Wade and Christopher Forsyth
This chapter discusses the objective boundaries of discretionary powers and the way in which the courts police them. Inherent in all discretionary power is the power to decide freely, whether rightly or wrongly, without liability to correction, within the area of discretion allowed by the law. Until fairly recently this liberty to make mistakes within jurisdiction extended to significant mistakes both of law and of fact. The extent to which both these classes of error have been brought within the scope of judicial review is explained.
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6. Scope of Application
Sarah Joseph and Barrie Sander
A state is not responsible for every act or omission which harms human rights, regardless of the perpetrator or the location. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the scope of application of a state’s obligations under international human rights law. That is, when do human rights duties apply? This chapter first defines key concepts and identifies the duty-bearers and beneficiaries of human rights law. Then it explains the instances in which a state will be held responsible for the actions or omissions of particular persons or entities. Finally, it addresses the territorial scope of a state’s human rights duties.
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17. Boundaries of Judicial Review
Sir William Wade, Christopher Forsyth, and Julian Ghosh
This chapter discusses the scope of judicial review. Judicial review is a procedure for obtaining the remedies specified in the Senior Courts Act 1981, namely the quashing order, the prohibiting order and the mandatory order, and declaration and injunction. The scope of judicial review, therefore, is the same as the scope of these remedies. Their boundaries, as set out already, are fairly clear, but in the non-statutory area they are uncertain.
Chapter
8. Jurisdiction Over Fact and Law
Sir William Wade, Christopher Forsyth, and Julian Ghosh
This chapter discusses the objective boundaries of discretionary powers and the way in which the courts police them. Inherent in all discretionary power is the power to decide freely, whether rightly or wrongly, without liability to correction, within the area of discretion allowed by the law. Until fairly recently this liberty to make mistakes within jurisdiction extended to significant mistakes both of law and of fact. The extent to which both these classes of error have been brought within the scope of judicial review is explained.
Chapter
7. The Structure of the Tribunals
Alisdair A. Gillespie and Siobhan Weare
This chapter examines the jurisdiction and structure of tribunals. It then considers two very different tribunals through the use of case studies, namely the Employment Tribunals and the Investigatory Powers Tribunal. Tribunals have existed for many years but have traditionally operated as an oversight system for administrative issues. In recent years, the number of tribunals has increased and their work has begun to involve more complicated legal questions. Tribunals are now, in essence, a parallel system of dispute resolution and their complexity is recognized by the fact that their presiding officers now bear the title of ‘judge’. This chapter examines this parallel judicial system and identifies similarities between and differences from court justice.
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14. International Criminal Law
This chapter addresses the prosecution of crimes in international criminal courts according to international—not national—criminal law. International law has long recognised that certain conduct, for example piracy and slavery, are crimes against international law which may be tried by international bodies or by any State. This principle has been expanded to cover more substantive crimes. International mechanisms for criminal accountability may be established where national courts have failed or are unable to try offenders due to a lack of political will, insufficient resources, deficiencies in national law, and/or ongoing conflict. The establishment and jurisdiction of the existing international criminal tribunals, including the International Criminal Court, are considered.
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5. The Scope of the Convention
This chapter examines the scope of the provisions of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). In particular, it explores the temporal scope of the European Convention, as well as the Contracting States’ liability for the acts of State-owned enterprises and State agents, and for the acts of international organisations. It discusses the concept of jurisdiction in Article 1 of the Convention, examining the Court’s case-law on extraterritorial jurisdiction and Contracting States’ jurisdiction over breakaway or autonomous regions. The chapter highlights the centrality of Article 1 to the multilevel system of protection set in place by the ECHR and identifies a number of future problems which may arise as a result of globalisation and technological advancement.
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11. Service Outside the Jurisdiction
This chapter deals with jurisdiction in England and Wales. Proceedings generally have to be served within the jurisdiction. There always has to be a sound basis before proceedings can be served outside the jurisdiction. Where the parties have an exclusive jurisdiction clause in favour of the courts of England and Wales, proceedings may be commenced against a defendant who is outside the jurisdiction pursuant to the Hague Convention 2005, and served on the defendant without seeking court permission. In other cases, if jurisdiction can be established against a defendant who is outside the jurisdiction under the CPR, r 6.36 and PD 6B, para 3.1, proceedings can be served outside the jurisdiction only with the permission of the court. The times for responding to claims served outside the jurisdiction are extended.
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10. The Preliminary Ruling Procedure
This chapter examines the relationship between the Court of Justice (CJ) and the national courts in the context of the preliminary ruling procedure provided by Article 267 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). The chapter focuses on the text of Article 267 TFEU. It analyses the extent to which national courts are willing and able to gain access to the CJ in order to resolve the questions of European Union (EU) law before them. The chapter also explains the concept of acte clair. The analysis reveals that the CJ has rarely refused its jurisdiction and has interpreted broadly the term ‘court or tribunal’. The CJ has also rarely attempted to interfere with national courts’ discretion in matters of referral and application of EU law, while national courts have generally been ready to refer cases to the CJ.
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6. Parliamentary sovereignty
Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses the definition of parliamentary sovereignty, AV Dicey’s views concerning parliamentary sovereignty, the jurisdiction of the courts, whether the substance of an Act of Parliament can be challenged, the enrolled bill rule; whether the jurisdiction of the court over an Act of Parliament can be enlarged; the rule in Pepper v Hart; entrenchment clauses; prospective formula; the effect of the Human Rights Act 1998; the devolution of the legislative process.
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12. Detecting and prosecuting computer crime
This chapter examines key forms of computer related crimes. Computer fraud is a topic that attracts much legal and media attention. As the name suggests, it is essentially a variant of well-established principles of this area of the law. If a perpetrator obtains funds belonging to a victim through some form of deception or manipulation, this will be considered criminal with the most significant legal issues being concerned with the question when or where an offence has occurred. The deliberate promulgation of computer viruses or malware is also generally regarded as a criminal offence although there are issues regarding the degree of intent that needs to be established to secure a conviction. Viruses are generally spread through the conduct of individuals other than those who create to program. Conduct might be characterized as negligent rather than deliberate and will generally not be criminal. Similar issues of intent and knowledge may arise in respect of other forms of conduct such as denial of service attacks.
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24. Enforcement
Justine Pila and Paul L.C. Torremans
This chapter looks into preliminary aspect of private international law, focusing on jurisdiction and choice of law. Before enforcement actions can get off the ground we need to know which court will have jurisdiction and which law that court will apply. Jurisdiction is based on the domicile of the defendant as a basic rule, but alternative fora are available. The courts of the place of the harmful event may also have jurisdiction and there are special rules for multiple defendant cases. Validity cases are subject to exclusive jurisdiction rules. In terms of choice of law, the law of the country for which protection is sought takes centre stage when it comes to IP. It is the law applicable to the IP right as such and it also applies to infringement.
Chapter
11. Service Outside the Jurisdiction
This chapter deals with jurisdiction in England and Wales. Proceedings generally have to be served within the jurisdiction. There always has to be a sound basis before proceedings can be served outside the jurisdiction. Where the parties have an exclusive jurisdiction clause in favour of the courts of England and Wales, proceedings may be commenced against a defendant who is outside the jurisdiction pursuant to the Hague Convention 2005, and served on the defendant without seeking court permission. In other cases, if jurisdiction can be established against a defendant who is outside the jurisdiction under the CPR, r 6.36 and PD 6B, para 3.1, proceedings can be served outside the jurisdiction only with the permission of the court. The times for responding to claims served outside the jurisdiction are extended.
Chapter
18. Consumer protection
This chapter examines how consumers are protected when they go online. It examines the extensive protections offered by the Consumer Rights Directive to distance agreements (including online agreements). The rules on jurisdiction, choice of law, and enforcement are examined alongside what rights the consumer has to receive information and to cancel contracts agreed at a distance. In addition, this chapter examines the suite of rights created by the Consumer Rights Act 2015 and in particular the new provisions therein which digital content (including software, apps, and in-game content among others). The chapter continues with a discussion of the regulation of unsolicited commercial communications or spam including a discussion of the Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications, GDPR, and the proposed ePrivacy Regulation. The chapter accounts for changes in the legal framework caused by Brexit.
Chapter
13. The nature of judicial review
Judicial review is a procedure whereby the courts determine the lawfulness of the exercise of executive power. It is concerned with the legality of the decision-making process as opposed to the merits of the actual decision. Thus it is supervisory rather than appellate. Emphasis is also placed on the fact that the jurisdiction exists to control the exercise of power by public bodies. This chapter discusses the supervisory jurisdiction of the courts, procedural reform, the rule in O’Reilly v Mackman, the public law/private law distinction, collateral challenge, and exclusion of judicial review. The procedure for making a claim for judicial review under the Civil Procedural Rules (CPR) Pt 54 is outlined, and the prospect of further reform is noted.