Tort is the area of civil law which provides a remedy for a party who has suffered the breach of a protected interest. Different torts deal with different types of harm or wrongful conduct and the ‘ingredients’ for each of these torts are different; each with its own particular characteristics. This chapter discusses the types of loss or harm covered; competing interests; remedies; comparison of tort with contract law, criminal law, and human rights law; the aims of the law of tort (compensation and deterrence); and alternative routes to compensation. The influence of insurance and of the Compensation Act 2006 is included.
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1. Tort and the tort system
General overview
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7. Remedies for breach of contract
James Devenney and Adam Shaw-Mellors
Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter focuses on damages, the aim of which is generally to protect the claimant’s contractual expectation and put the claimant into the position they would have been in had the contract been properly performed. The lost expectation may be measured in terms of the difference between what the claimant expected to get and what was actually received. There are limitations on the claimant’s ability to be fully compensated for losses as a result of breach, i.e. remoteness, mitigation, contributory negligence, and the ability to recover for non-pecuniary losses in contract. This chapter also examines agreed damages clauses and the operation of the penalty rule.
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9. State responsibility
The law of international responsibility sets out the legal consequences arising from a breach by a State of its international obligations. It should be distinguished from ‘primary rules’ of international law, which lay down international obligations. International responsibility arises when a certain act or omission is wrongful, ie it is attributed to a State and it amounts to a violation of its ‘primary’ obligations. The international responsibility may be excused under certain strict circumstances, such as consent or necessity. Otherwise, the responsible State should cease the wrongful conduct and, in case of damage, it should provide reparation to the injured State, in the form of restitution, compensation, and satisfaction.
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17. Remedies and principles of compensation
This chapter discusses the main remedies for torts: damages and injunctions. In tort, damages are primarily compensatory and are intended to restore to the claimant what he has lost. Damages may be punitive or aggravated. They may be awarded in a lump sum, or in periodic or provisional form, and may be subject to deductions. An injunction is an order of the court requiring the defendant either to do something (mandatory injunction) or to cease doing something (prohibitory injunction). Interim injunctions anticipate trial of the full issue. Upon death, a remedy may be obtainable on behalf of the deceased or his dependants.
Chapter
7. Remedies for breach of contract
Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter focuses on damages, the aim of which is generally to protect the claimant’s contractual expectation and put the claimant into the position they would have been in had the contract been properly performed. The lost expectation may be measured in terms of the difference between what the claimant expected to get and what was actually received. There are limitations on the claimant’s ability to be fully compensated for losses as a result of breach, i.e. remoteness, mitigation, contributory negligence, and the ability to recover for non-pecuniary losses in contract. This chapter also examines agreed damages clauses and the operation of the penalty rule.
Chapter
9. Unfair dismissal
Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses the law on unfair dismissal. The principal cases are discussed in full. It is easy to get lost in the mass of case law and concentration must be kept on the statute and these leading cases. The employer must demonstrate that the reason for the dismissal relates to capability or qualifications, conduct, a statutory ban, or some other substantial reason of a kind to justify the dismissal. An employer must act reasonably in treating a reason as sufficient for dismissal. This is the famous ‘range of reasonable responses’ test. It should be guided by the ACAS Code of Practice 2015 and must follow contractual procedures. The remedies for unfair dismissal include re-employment or compensation.
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5. Financial provision on divorce or dissolution
Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses financial provision on divorce or dissolution of marriage or civil partnership, including housing and everyday expenses of the parties and any children involved. It considers the courts’ statutory powers to redistribute property in case of divorce, nullity, judicial separation, or the dissolution of a civil partnership. The chapter explains how civil partners in England and Wales are treated under the Civil Partnership Act 2004 (CPA) and the courts’ application of the provisions of the Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 (MCA) in reaching a decision in divorce cases. It also discusses the three principles of financial needs, compensation, and sharing used by the courts in making an award; nuptial agreements; the Law Commission Report on Matrimonial Property, Needs and Agreements; and provision for children under the MCA, the CPA, the Child Support Act 1991, and the Children Act 1989.
