This concluding chapter studies police powers. It is the function of the police to keep the public secure by preventing and detecting crime, and maintaining public order. This involves the exercise of public power and powerfully engages the relationship between the citizen and the state. There are clear links between police powers and the rule of law: it is imperative that police powers are not used in a random, arbitrary way; are clear, foreseeable, and accessible; are not unlimited; and are in accordance with the law. Police powers are mostly statute-based, the most significant of which is the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) which was enacted to achieve a balance between protecting citizens’ rights and effective police powers. Under section 66, the Home Secretary issues detailed Codes of Practice regulating the exercise of police powers and providing clear guidelines for the police and safeguards for the public.
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19. Police powers
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8. Rule of law
This chapter assesses the rule of law. The rule of law is a constitutional value or principle which measures good governance, fair law-making, and applying law in a just way. It acts as a protecting mechanism by preventing state officials from acting unfairly, unlawfully, arbitrarily, or oppressively. These are also key terms in judicial review. The rule of law is also regarded as an external measure for what a state does; if the rule of law breaks down in a state, it will fail to function in an internationally acceptable way. Ultimately, the core meaning of the rule of law is that the law binds everyone. This includes those in government, who must obey the law. Moreover, any action taken by the government must be authorised by law, that is, government needs lawful authority to act.
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14. Industrial Designs
All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter discusses design protection in the UK and EU and the impact of the UK’s departure from the EU on this protection. In particular, it traces the history of industrial design protection before turning to examine in detail the registered designs and unregistered design right systems. The chapter also analyses the relationship between copyright and industrial designs, the tensions that arise from this interrelationship, and how this interface will be regulated in future under UK law.
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9. Causation and remoteness of damage
This chapter discusses the final ‘hurdle’ for the claimant to overcome in the tort of negligence—causation. The claimant must prove that their injuries were caused by the defendant’s actions in both fact and law. To establish cause in fact, the claimant must show, on the balance of probabilities, that the defendant’s breach caused their harm. Tests for cause in law encompass a remoteness test (which involves establishing whether the damage that occurred was foreseeable to the defendant at the time of the negligence). It is the type of harm that must be foreseeable, not its extent. The last part of the test is to ask whether any intervening acts (acts that occurred after the defendant’s breach) broke the chain of causation. If so, the defendant will not be liable.
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11. The key functions of Parliament
This chapter identifies Parliament’s primary functions of making law and scrutinising government action. Parliament’s scrutiny of government has been defined as ‘the process of examining expenditure, administration, and policy in detail, on the public record, requiring the government of the day to explain itself to parliamentarians as representatives of the citizen and the taxpayer, and to justify its actions’. In the absence of a codified constitution and entrenched limits on executive power, the requirement for the government to answer to Parliament for its actions acts as a check and control. The chapter also considers the legislative process, particularly legislative scrutiny. Secondary legislation made by the government can often be subject to much less scrutiny and debate than primary legislation, and sometimes none at all. These scrutiny gaps increase the risk of arbitrary law-making and ‘governing from the shadows’, again raising rule of law concerns.
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12. The executive
This chapter discusses the executive, the administrative branch of government which creates and executes policy, and implements laws. It specifically focuses on the organisation of central government in the UK. Central government in the UK carries out day-to-day administration in relation to England and the whole of the UK on non-devolved matters. Its functions include the conduct of foreign affairs, defence, national security, and oversight of the Civil Service and government agencies. Central government essentially consists of the government and Civil Service but modern government is extensive, multi-layered, and complex. The chapter then studies the sources of ministerial power. Ministers’ legal authority to act can derive from statute, common law, or royal prerogative. The royal prerogative is a source of power which is ‘only available for a case not covered by statute’.
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13. The judiciary
This chapter examines the role of the judiciary in the UK constitution, the critically important concepts of judicial independence and neutrality, accountability of judges, and judicial power. The UK courts administer justice; uphold the rule of law; and act as a check on executive power. Judicial independence requires that judges should be free from external influences in their decision-making, and make decisions without political interference or fear of reprisal. Meanwhile, judicial neutrality means that judges should determine legal disputes impartially, objectively, and solely by applying the law. At first sight, judicial accountability seems inconsistent with being independent, but it is essential that the judiciary adheres to the highest standards in carrying out its functions. In the absence of a codified constitution, the boundaries of judicial power operate within a framework of constitutional principles and conventions, but there is debate over the limits of that power.
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14. Challenging government action
This chapter focuses on the administrative justice system. Administrative justice refers to the systems that enable individuals to resolve complaints, grievances, and disputes about administrative or executive decisions of public bodies, and to obtain redress. Grievance mechanisms exist to achieve redress and to ensure accountability and improved public administration. They include formal court action through judicial review, but range well beyond the courts to informal, non-legal mechanisms. Whereas a public inquiry may concern a grievance of a larger section of the public and can raise political issues, an inquiry by an Ombudsman concerns a grievance of an individual or small group, with a different fact-finding process. Meanwhile, tribunals determine rights and entitlements in disputes between citizens and state in specific areas of law, such as social security, immigration and asylum, and tax.
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17. The Human Rights Act 1998
This chapter addresses the Human Rights Act 1998. The Human Rights Act provides two ways for the courts to ensure compliance with Convention rights: where legislation is not human rights-compliant; and where a public authority has acted incompatibly with an individual’s rights. By providing a new benchmark for measuring UK legislation for compatibility with Convention rights, the Act gives judges a powerful interpreting role which effectively allows them to review Acts of Parliament. At the same time, the Act was carefully drafted to respect and preserve parliamentary sovereignty and does not give the UK courts power to invalidate, overrule, or strike down an Act of Parliament that is incompatible with a Convention right; and while the Human Rights Act has special status as a constitutional statute, it is not entrenched and cannot override other statutes.
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18. Human rights in action
This chapter explores how three Convention rights operate in practice: the right to life (Article 2), the right to a private and family life (Article 8), and freedom of religious belief (Article 9). Article 2 provides that everyone’s right to life shall be protected by law. No one shall be deprived of one’s life intentionally save in the execution of a sentence of a court following one’s conviction of a crime for which this penalty is provided by law. Article 8 provides that everyone has the right to respect for one’s private and family life, home, and correspondence. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law. Meanwhile, Article 9 provides that everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion; this right includes freedom to change and manifest one’s religion or belief.
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2. Legislation
This chapter first considers the process by which Acts of Parliament come into being. It then turns to delegated legislation—that is, law that is made by other bodies under Parliament’s authority. Next, it discusses the impact of the European Convention on Human Rights and the Human Rights Act 1998. Finally it looks at EU legislation, which became increasingly significant during the time that the UK was a member of the EU. It explains the various institutions of the EU and role they had in the law-making process; the different types of EU legislation; and the circumstances in which individuals could use them in domestic courts.
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4. Using legislation
This chapter discusses how to use legislation. It first looks at the ‘anatomy’ of an Act of Parliament and describes each of its composite parts. It then considers the various means by which the courts can interpret the wording of statutory provisions, including a discussion of the impact of the Human Rights Act 1998 and the European Communities Act 1972.
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3. Copyright II: Authorship, Ownership, Exploitation, Term, Moral Rights, and Economic Rights
All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter discusses principles relating to the authorship and ownership of copyright, and the significance of this designation. It examines how owners of copyright can exploit their works by either assignment or licence and the circumstances in which courts can imply terms in the absence of parties having agreed as to how a copyright work can be exploited. The chapter discusses the term of copyright protection and also examines exclusive rights, both moral and economic in nature, that authors and owners respectively have in their copyright works.
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4. Copyright III:Infringement, Exceptions, and Database Right
All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter discusses the circumstances in which an owner’s economic rights may be infringed and the exceptions and limitations to copyright infringement, including fair dealing for research and private study, reporting current events, criticism or review, and quotation. The chapter explores recent cases relevant to these exceptions and how the UK’s departure from the EU may affect judicial interpretation and how technological protection measures interrelate with copyright exceptions. It also examines the sui generis database right.
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6. Trade Marks I: Justifications, Registration, and Absolute Grounds for Refusal of Registration
All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter examines the main justifications for the protection of registered trade marks. It considers the substantive law relating to the subject matter of registration as set out in the Trade Marks Directive (2016), its predecessor and domestic law. It looks at which signs will be registered as well as the absolute grounds for refusal of registration and at the Court of Justice of the European Union and domestic case law interpreting these grounds. The practicalities of the trade mark registration process both domestically and internationally are also considered. The chapter then looks at the relationship between registered marks and the public domain.
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13. Patents III: Infringement, Exceptions, and Entitlement
All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter discusses patent infringement, exceptions to infringement, and entitlement. Assessment of whether a patent has been infringed involves a three-stage process. First, the patent claims must be construed to see whether the defendant’s activities fall within the scope of the monopoly. Second, the infringing acts that the defendant is alleged to have carried out must be identified. Third, the applicability of exceptions to infringement must be considered. The chapter then focuses on three key exceptions to infringement within the Patents Act 1977: acts done for experimental purposes (‘experimental use’); acts done for private and non-commercial purposes (‘private use’); and the right to continue use begun before the priority date (‘prior use’). Finally, it considers persons entitled to the grant of a patent, including the role of artificial intelligence in inventorship.
Book
Tanya Aplin and Jennifer Davis
All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. Intellectual Property Law: Text, Cases, and Materials provides a complete resource for undergraduate and postgraduate students of intellectual property (IP) law. The only text of its kind in the field, it combines extracts from major cases and secondary materials with critical commentary from experienced teachers in the field. The book deals with all areas of IP law in the UK: copyright, trade marks and passing off, personality and publicity rights, character merchandising, confidential information and privacy, industrial designs and patents. It also tackles topical areas, such as the application of IP law to new technologies, such as artificial intelligence, and the impact of the internet on trade marks, copyright, and privacy. While the focus of the book is on IP law in a domestic context, it provides international, EU, and comparative law perspectives on major issues, and also addresses the wider policy implications of legislative and judicial developments in the area. The book is an ideal resource for all students of IP law who need cases, materials, and commentary in a single volume.
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1. An Introduction to Intellectual Property
All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter examines the philosophical and justificatory context in which intellectual property rights (IPRs) have developed, and the international and regional frameworks that have emerged for their protection. It also considers some of the important contemporary debates surrounding IPRs, such as the interface with human rights and the notion of the public domain, and discusses how IP law might develop in the UK following its exit from the EU. There is a brief introduction on how to enforce IPRs.
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5. Principles of Direct Applicability and Direct Effects
This chapter examines the scope of the doctrines of direct and indirect effect (including ‘direct applicability’) in the context of European Union (EU) law. These doctrines allow individuals to rely on EU law rights in national courts. It explains that while the Court of Justice (CJ) has emphasised that EU directives can apply against the state (vertical direct effect: starting with the Van Gend case), but cannot have direct effect as against individuals (horizontal effect), its case law shows a range of developments which operate to undermine the simplicity of this position. The chapter suggests that granting individuals and national courts a role in the enforcement of Union law has ensured that EU law is applied and Union rights are enforced. It also considers questions concerning the idea of incidental direct effect, triangular situations and the consequences of the line of jurisprudence starting with the judgments in Mangold (case C-144/04) and Kücükdeveci (case C-555/07).
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10. The Legislature: membership, privileges, and standards
This chapter explores the role and membership of Parliament’s two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the operation of parliamentary privilege; and accountability of members. The key functions of Parliament include controlling national expenditure and taxation; sustaining the government; legislating and scrutinising government actions. The House of Commons is the pre-eminent chamber and dominates Parliament. The Commons’ membership consists of Members of Parliament (MPs) who are democratically elected by the public to represent their interests in Parliament. The membership of the House of Lords largely relies on patronage. Members of the Lords are appointed by the Queen on the Prime Minister’s advice. The House of Lords is an important revising and scrutinising chamber, and while it is subordinate to the democratically elected House of Commons, it is also a check on constitutional change by the Commons. The Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 redefined the Lords’ legislative powers over public bills and established the Commons’ primacy. The chapter then considers the operation of parliamentary privilege. Parliament needs parliamentary privilege to conduct its core business effectively, independently, and without fear of outside interference, and to protect everything said or done in the transaction of parliamentary business. Indeed, Parliament is self-regulating and, as a sovereign body, operates outside the jurisdiction of the courts except for the criminal law. Each House has its own standards of conduct and disciplinary powers which ensure accountability.
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