This chapter examines the rule from Rylands v Fletcher [1868]. The rule holds that where there has been an escape of a dangerous thing in the course of a non-natural use of land, the occupier of that land is liable for the damage to another caused as a result of the escape, irrespective of fault. The rule today is best understood through a trilogy of cases: Rylands v Fletcher, Cambridge Water Co Ltd v Eastern Counties Leather plc [1994] and Transco v Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council [2004]. The development of the rule has led to an increased overlap with ideas from nuisance and negligence.
Chapter
19. Actions under the rule of Rylands v Fletcher
Chapter
2. Introduction to the tort of negligence
The chapter begins by mapping and explaining the historical development of the tort of negligence, and some of the key themes underpinning the tort, before placing the discussion in the context of the modern law of negligence. The chapter then outlines the essential ingredients of a claim in negligence—a duty of care, a breach of that duty and the damage caused by that breach—before going on to explore these in practice through a close examination of the first instance judgment in X & Y v London Borough of Hounslow [2008].
Chapter
1. Introduction
This introductory chapter begins with a definition of tort law and the interests that tort law protects. To say that the law of tort protects an individual’s rights or interests does not mean that a claimant will succeed simply by showing that the defendant harmed them or infringed their rights. Tort law lays down a set of rules stating when exactly a harm or infringement of one’s interest will give rise to legal liability. The chapter discusses the disparate functions of tort law and illustrates them through the case of Woodroffe-Hedley v Cuthbertson [1997]. The chapter then explains the significance of the Human Rights Act 1998 for tort law.
Chapter
3. Breach of Duty
Celebrated for their conceptual clarity, titles in the Clarendon Law Series offer concise, accessible overviews of major fields of law and legal thought. This chapter discusses breach of duty. To establish breach of duty, it must be determined that there was some misbehaviour by the defendant himself. The chapter addresses the question of whether the defendant behaved reasonably. It considers factors such as foreseeability of harm objective standard, normal practice, utility of conduct, cost of prevention, conduct of others, and emergencies. It then turns to the identification of the breach.
Chapter
1. Introduction
This introductory chapter first reviews the current state of the law of tort. It discusses the increase in tort claims due to our greater ability to cause more and greater harm and our reduced willingness to put up with the normal vicissitudes of life. It considers the law of individual responsibility. It suggests that tort law is becoming by the day a more complex set of rules than it ever was, where national law mixes with legal ideas emanating from foreign jurisdictions. Tort law rules are also becoming intermingled with those from other branches of English law. The second part of the chapter discusses the relationship between tort and contract.
Chapter
10. Malicious Prosecution
This chapter considers the ingredients of successful action for malicious prosecution. The claimant must show: that the defendant prosecuted him; that the prosecution ended in the defendant’s favour; that there was no reasonable and probable cause for the prosecution; and that the defendant was actuated by ‘malice’. It covers not merely criminal prosecutions but certain forms of abuse of civil process, for example tort claims alleging deceit or malice. Damage also in all cases is a necessary ingredient. The tort, while ancient, is still being actively litigated, and the chapter analyses a number of recent cases in the higher appellate courts.
Chapter
12. Trespass to Land
This chapter discusses trespass to land and defences. Trespass can be committed in various ways, provided that the interference is direct and immediate. The boundary between trespass and other torts, particularly nuisance, is sometimes difficult to draw. Entry on to land is simply the most obvious example of trespass, but other examples include: placing things on land or inducing animals to enter. The Limitation Act 1623, section 5 provides that if the defendant pleads disclaimer of title to the land and if ‘the trespass was by negligence or involuntary’ and he makes a tender of sufficient amends, action against him shall be barred. The claimant’s consent is always a defence to an action in trespass, in the sense that it constitutes ‘leave and licence’.
Chapter
24. Damages
This chapter is the first of two chapters concerned with remedies. The focus of this chapter is monetary remedies; the financial consequences of a proven tort. It begins by discussing the notion of damage, and damages, before exploring different types of damages; the principle of full compensation; the interrelationship of tort and other compensation systems; pecuniary and non-pecuniary losses; death in relation to tort; and damage to property.
Chapter
13. Nuisance
Private nuisance is defined as any substantial and unreasonable interference with the claimant’s land, or with his rights to peaceful enjoyment of that land and any right that exists in connection with it. It need not result from ‘direct’ or ‘intentional’ interference; it is sufficient that the defendant have ‘adopted or continued’ a state of affairs that constitutes an unreasonable interference. This chapter discusses the basis of liability in private nuisance; the concept of unreasonable interference and the difference between this concept and the notion of ‘reasonableness’ in negligence; who can sue and who can be sued; defences; and remedies. It also discusses, in outline, public nuisance; the relationship between nuisance and other forms of liability; and nuisance and protection of the environment.
Chapter
16. The Rule in Rylands v. Fletcher
This chapter examines the rule in Rylands v. Fletcher, a rule which remains controversial to this day. The rule states that anyone who, in the course of a ‘non-natural’ use of his land ‘accumulates’ thereon for his own purposes anything likely to do mischief if it escapes, is answerable for all direct damage thereby caused. It discusses the requirements for liability, the various controlling mechanisms used to limit the scope of the rule; what and whose interests are protected by it; and the relationship between Rylands v. Fletcher and private nuisance. The chapter also explores the important questions that the rule in Rylands v. Fletcher raises about the nature, and future, of strict liability in the law of tort in general.
Chapter
6. Law of torts
Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. Tort law is the focus of this chapter. It begins by distinguishing between contractual and tortious liability. It then discusses negligence, common defences to torts, and private nuisance. Negligence involves a breach of a duty to take care, owed in law by the defendant to the claimant, causing the claimant damage. Common defences to torts are illegality, consent, contributory negligence, and necessity. Private nuisance involves unlawful interference with another person’s enjoyment of their land/property which causes the claimant loss (and the loss/damage was reasonably foreseeable). When products cause injury/loss, rather than attempting to claim negligence, a claimant may seek protection through the Consumer Protection Act (CPA) 1987.
Chapter
20. Vicarious liability
This chapter examines the principle of vicarious liability, a form of secondary liability through which employers may, in certain circumstances, be liable for the torts of their employees, even though the employer themselves may be entirely blameless. The imposition of vicarious liability is one of the most important exceptions to the general approach of the common law whereby liability for any wrongdoing is imposed on, and only on, the wrongdoer(s). A defendant will not be vicariously liable unless the following conditions are met: (a) there is an employer–employee relationship (or one akin to this) between the defendant and the person for whose actions they are being held liable; and (b) a close connection between this relationship and the tortious wrongdoing of the employee
Chapter
3. Duty of care: basic principles
This chapter begins by tracing the development of the duty of care starting with the case of Donoghue v Stevenson [1932]. It goes on to consider the various general tests developed and used by the courts in order to establish when a duty of care is owed.
Chapter
8. Breach of duty: the standard of care
This chapter focuses on breach of duty. Breach occurs where a defendant has fallen below the particular standard of care demanded by the law. This is largely an objective test and is determined by comparing the actions of the defendant to those imagined to be done in the same circumstances by the so-called ‘reasonable man’. The questions to be answered are how the defendant ought to have behaved (what was the required standard of care) and how the defendant did behave (did they in fact fall below that standard).
Chapter
10. Defences to negligence
This chapter discusses three key defences in the tort of negligence: voluntary assumption of risk (consent or volenti non fit injuria), contributory negligence and illegality. The defence of voluntary assumption of risk is based on the common-sense notion that ‘one who has invited or assented to an act being done towards him cannot, when he suffers it, complain of it as a wrong’. The defence of illegality denies recovery to certain claimants injured while committing unlawful activities. Contributory negligence is a defence that operates not to defeat the claimant’s claim entirely but rather to reduce the amount of damages the defendant must pay.
Chapter
11. Occupiers’ liability
This chapter discusses occupiers’ liability, which deals with the risks posed, and harms caused, by dangerous places and buildings. In such cases, the occupier of the premises may be liable where a person who comes onto their land is injured in or by unsafe premises if the occupier has not taken reasonable care to ensure that those entering are safe. The general principles of negligence have been incorporated into, and modified by, statute in the form of the Occupiers’ Liability Acts 1957 and 1984. Although the Acts define the circumstances in which a duty of care will be owed (and tell us something as to its extent, as well as matters relating to its discharge and limitation), questions of breach and causation still need to be established by reference to the ordinary principles of negligence.
Chapter
13. Employers’ liability
This chapter discusses employers’ liability and, in particular, the non-delegable duty of care, which employers owe to their employees to ensure that they are reasonably safe when at work. The duty ensures that an employer remains responsible for key tasks even when their obligations have been delegated to another. The duty of care is typically said to have four components (building on Lord Wright’s statement in Wilsons & Clyde Coal Co Ltd [1938]) comprising the provision of: a competent workforce; adequate material and equipment; a safe system of working (including effective supervision); and a safe workplace.
Chapter
1. Exam Skills for Success in Tort Law
Dr Karen Dyer and Dr Anil Balan
Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses ways to achieve a good grade for a law exam. The basis for a good grade in tort law is a detailed understanding of the law of tort and developing a systematic approach to using one’s knowledge of law to answer examination questions. The preparations for success include attending all lectures and seminars/tutorials; reviewing previous exam papers; start revising early; and being aware of the date, time, and venue of the exam.
Chapter
14. Skills for Success in Coursework Assessments
Dr Karen Dyer and Dr Anil Balan
Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses how students can structure their answers to coursework questions, and exposes common errors that students make when undertaking coursework. The starting point for obtaining a good grade in an exam is to answer the question set. It is even more important to do so for coursework questions, as students are usually given plenty of time to plan and prepare their answers, and to ask for additional support if needed. Whether answering a problem question or an essay question, students are required to produce a convincing argument using ‘evidence’ from case law, statutory provisions, and academic literature.
Chapter
6. Vicarious Liability
Celebrated for their conceptual clarity, titles in the Clarendon Law Series offer concise, accessible overviews of major fields of law and legal thought. This chapter discusses the law on vicarious liability. In principle, a person is not liable in negligence unless he is in breach of a duty owed by him to the claimant. Quite often, however, a person who is not in breach of any duty incumbent on himself is nevertheless liable, and strictly liable, for torts committed by someone else. His liability is then said to be ‘vicarious’. The principal instance of vicarious liability is that of the employer for his employees. Persons may also be liable for those engaged in a joint enterprise with them, whether as fellow conspirator or partner in a firm.
