This chapter discusses in detail the two major themes in the formation of criminological thinking. The tension between these two traditions has existed since the development of positivism in the nineteenth century and is still of considerable importance in present-day debates about crime and ‘law and order’. It is common to single out France as typifying all that was bad with the administration of the criminal law in pre-eighteenth-century Europe. France provided an extreme example of what passed as criminal ‘justice’ throughout most of Europe. It was generally believed that crime was the consequence of evil. In some cases, it was assumed that the Devil or demons had taken over individuals and directed them to perform wicked acts. Alternatively, people whose faith in God was weak might have yielded to temptation and made a pact with the Devil.
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4. The classical and positivist traditions
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32. Conducting criminological research
This chapter focuses on the process of conducting criminological research. Regardless of the size of the research, the same key principles and elements apply. The chapter begins by looking at how to choose a research or dissertation topic and how to conduct the necessary academic reading in this area and decide on an appropriate research methodology for that topic. It then considers how the project can be effectively planned and organised, and provides some advice on writing up the research and demonstrating critical thinking. Finally, the chapter identifies the fundamental ethical principles for conducting research: encouraging engagement with ethical thinking that goes further than a tick on a box of a dissertation proposal. These steps will develop the research experience and skills necessary for the ‘next step’ of continuing higher education or progressing into employment.
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13. Contagion and connections: Applying network thinking to violence and organized crime
Paolo Campana
This chapter looks into the application of network thinking to violence and organized crime. The COVID-19 global pandemic showcased how connections matter and far-reaching consequences for the life and well-being of individuals and communities. Infectious pathogens exploit the web of social relations to increase their spread across individuals and places, which then results in the emergence of epidemics. Criminology has been slow to adopt social network analysis, but it does elucidate the mechanisms concerning violence and co-offending that involve gangs and organized crime. The chapter explains that relations and individual characteristics do not need to be treated in opposition to each other, but can be modelled and explored jointly.
