Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses the concept of judicial review. Judicial review allows a High Court judge to examine the lawfulness of decisions made by public bodies carrying out their public functions and enactments where there is no right of appeal or where all avenues of appeal have been exhausted. The defendant must be a public body, the subject matter of a claim must be a public law matter, and the claimant must have the right to claim. This chapter also looks at the basis procedure for judicial review.
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10. Introduction to administrative lawThe foundations and extent of judicial review
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19. Third Party Liability
Paul S Davies and Graham Virgo
All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter focuses its discussion on personal claims, where the claimant seeks a sum of money from the defendant but does not assert any right to any particular property. However, even where the defendant is solvent and could satisfy a personal claim, a proprietary claim might often be more desirable. If the property has risen in value, then that uplift in value will necessarily benefit the claimant if the claim is proprietary, but not if the claim is personal. A personal claim for the value of the property at the time of the third party’s wrong might be preferred where the property has fallen in value. Moreover, a personal claim will be the only possible type of claim available to the claimant if the property in question has been dissipated and no longer exists. In such circumstances, a proprietary claim is impossible and a personal claim alone can be pursued.
Chapter
10. Introduction to administrative law
The foundations and extent of judicial review
Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses the concept of judicial review. Judicial review allows a High Court judge to examine the lawfulness of decisions made by public bodies carrying out their public functions and enactments where there is no right of appeal or where all avenues of appeal have been exhausted. The defendant must be a public body, the subject matter of a claim must be a public law matter, and the claimant must have the right to claim. This chapter also looks at the basis procedure for judicial review.
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40. Infringement
L. Bently, B. Sherman, D. Gangjee, and P. Johnson
This chapter deals with trade mark infringement, as set out in sections 10(1)-(3) of the Trade Marks Act 1994. It first outlines a non-exhaustive list of the situations in which a person uses a sign, such as affixing the sign to the goods or to the packaging; importing or exporting goods under the sign; or using the sign on business papers or in advertising. It then discusses how the claimant’s and defendant’s marks may be identified for comparison purposes, and the range of situations in which an infringement claim is viable, including when a mark is used in a relevant manner, in the course of trade, within the territory of the UK, and in relation to goods and services. Finally, it examines the functions of a trade mark, commencing with the ‘origin’ function. It concludes by considering secondary or accessory liability for trade mark infringement, especially relevant for Internet platforms.
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25. Interim Payments
This chapter discusses the rules on interim payments. An order for interim payment is an order for payment of a sum of money by a defendant on account of any damages, debt, or other sum which the court may hold the defendant liable to pay. Such orders are likely to be made in claims where it appears that the claimant will achieve at least some success, and where it would be unjust to delay, until after the trial, payment of the money to which the claimant appears to be entitled. The amount ordered must not exceed a reasonable proportion of the likely final award taking into account any counterclaim and contributory negligence.
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3. Special duty problems: omissions and acts of third parties
This chapter discusses the problem of when a duty of care arises in respect of negligent omissions, or for the actions of a third party. The common law takes the view that it would be too great a burden to impose liability upon a person for a mere omission, or for the actions of others. Despite this, duties can in fact be imposed in various ways, all of which focus on the reliance of the claimant upon the defendant. This can come about either by the previous conduct of the defendant, which induces reliance by the claimant that the defendant will continue to act in that way, or by reliance which comes out of a relationship of dependence between the parties. As regards third parties, a duty may arise where the defendant has control over or responsibility for the third party’s actions.
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8. Causation and remoteness of damage
This chapter discusses the concepts of causation and remoteness of damage. Once it has been shown that a defendant owed the claimant a duty to take care and was in breach of that duty, liability can still be avoided if it can be shown that the breach did not cause the damage, or that the damage was too remote a consequence of the breach. Causation is initially determined on the balance of probabilities—a ‘but for’ test. A causation problem usually occurs when we look at the damage and see that it was actually caused by a number of different factors either combining together to bring about the damage, or each being sufficient in and of itself to have done so but where it cannot be determined which factor actually caused the harm. A remoteness problem can arise in two different situations: where the claimant is a foreseeable claimant and the damage has in fact been caused by the defendant’s act, but where the damage is either unpredictable in extent or unpredictable in nature.
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9. Defences to negligence
This chapter considers three defences. It begins with a discussion of the principle of contributory negligence. It presents cases showing that the rules for establishing contributory negligence on the part of the claimant are not the same as the rules for establishing liability for negligence on the part of the defendant. It then turns to voluntary assumption of the risk or consent (sometimes referred to as volenti non fit injuria) which provides a complete defence to an action. The defence is based on the view that a person cannot sue if he consents to the risk of damage. Finally, the chapter considers the defence of illegality, which arises when the tortious action is in the context of the claimant’s and/or defendant’s participation in an unlawful act.
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8. Causation and remoteness of damage
This chapter discusses the concepts of causation and remoteness of damage. If it has been shown that a defendant owed the claimant a duty to take care and was in breach of that duty, liability can still be avoided if it can be shown that the breach did not cause the damage, or that the damage was too remote a consequence of the breach. Causation is initially determined on the balance of probabilities—a ‘but for’ test. A causation problem usually occurs when we look at the damage and see that it was actually caused by multiple different factors either combining together to bring about the damage, or each being sufficient in and of itself to have done so but where it cannot be determined which factor actually caused the harm. A remoteness problem can arise in two different situations: where the claimant is a foreseeable claimant and the damage has in fact been caused by the defendant’s act, but where the damage is either unpredictable in extent or unpredictable in nature.
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9. Defences to negligence
This chapter considers three defences. It begins with a discussion of the principle of contributory negligence. It presents cases showing that the rules for establishing contributory negligence on the part of the claimant are not the same as the rules for establishing liability for negligence on the part of the defendant. It then turns to voluntary assumption of the risk or consent (sometimes referred to as volenti non fit injuria) which provides a complete defence to an action. The defence is based on the view that a person cannot sue if he consents to the risk of damage. Finally, the chapter considers the defence of illegality, which arises when the tortious action is in the context of the claimant’s and/or defendant’s participation in an unlawful act.
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25. Interim Payments
This chapter discusses the rules on interim payments. An order for interim payment is an order for payment of a sum of money by a defendant on account of any damages, debt, or other sum which the court may hold the defendant liable to pay. Such orders are likely to be made in claims where it appears that the claimant will achieve at least some success, and where it would be unjust to delay, until after the trial, payment of the money to which the claimant appears to be entitled. The amount ordered must not exceed a reasonable proportion of the likely final award taking into account any counterclaim and contributory negligence.
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3. Special duty problems: omissions and acts of third parties
This chapter discusses the problem of when a duty of care arises in respect of negligent omissions, or for the actions of a third party. The common law takes the view that it would be too great a burden to impose liability upon a person for a mere omission, or for the actions of others. Despite this, duties can in fact be imposed in various ways, all of which focus on the reliance of the claimant upon the defendant in the context of assumed responsibility. This can come about either by the previous conduct of the defendant, which induces reliance by the claimant that the defendant will continue to act in that way, or by reliance which comes out of a relationship of dependence between the parties. As regards third parties, a duty may arise where the defendant has control over or responsibility for the third party’s actions.
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20. Practice and Procedure
An employee seeking the enforcement of a statutory right, or to obtain a remedy for a breach of that right, must present his claim to an employment tribunal. This chapter discusses the rules for making a claim to an employment tribunal and the employment tribunal procedure. It looks at time limits and the effective date of termination, and considers the mechanics of submitting and defending a claim; the various stages of proceedings such as preliminary hearings and case management as well as the final hearing; remedies including compensation, basic award and compensatory award; vexatious litigants; costs and appeals to the Employment Appeal Tribunal and beyond.
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14. Tracing and recovering trust property
There are situations where trust property passes into the hands of a third party ‘stranger’—a person other than a trustee or beneficiary of the trust. Personal and proprietary remedies against strangers are particularly valuable where the claimant cannot be satisfied with actions against the original trustee. The claimant has to make choices not only in relation to the final remedy, but also when required to ‘elect’ between evidential alternatives. The tracing process, which supplies the evidence that a stranger has received trust property, may require the claimant to make such a choice. This chapter deals with tracing and ‘remedies’, focusing on how a claimant, typically a beneficiary of the trust, is able to trace trust property into the hands of a stranger and recover it by means of a proprietary remedy.
