International criminal law (ICL) is a body of international rules designed both to proscribe certain categories of conduct (war crimes, crimes against humanity, genocide, torture, aggression, international terrorism) and to make those persons who engage in such conduct criminally liable. These rules consequently either authorize states, or impose upon them the obligation to prosecute and punish such criminal conducts. This chapter discusses the main features of ICL; the sources of ICL; and the notion of international crimes.
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1. Fundamentals of international criminal law
Antonio Cassese, Paola Gaeta, Laurel Baig, Mary Fan, Christopher Gosnell, and Alex Whiting
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9. Non-Fatal Violations of the Person
This chapter discusses two main forms of physical violation: the use of physical force, and sexual interference. The first part covers non-fatal physical offences (offences against the person), including the contested question of the limits of consent, and possible reforms of the law. There have been numerous recommendations for reform of this area of the law, including Law Commission proposals in the recent past. The second part is devoted to the law of sexual offences under the Sexual Offences Act 2003, focusing on the main offences and the definition of consent. It concludes with a review of the law’s successes and failures. Arguably, while the law’s basic definition of rape is much improved, the 2003 Act falls down in relation to many other problems that it was meant to solve.
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1. Criminal Law Process
This chapter discusses the process of criminal law. The focus is on the importance of the exercise of official discretion, on the criminal law in action, and on the role of bureaucracy in criminal law. There is also an outline of sentencing powers. Patterns of decision-making by criminal justice officials are one of four key pillars of criminal law and justice, along with criminal law principles, rules, and standards. We will see how these patterns are structured by crime-management and bureaucratic–administrative techniques designed to reduce the number of contested trials and issues, and hence take pressure off the criminal justice system as a whole.
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11. Financial Crime
This chapter examines one major example of financial crime: fraud. The importance of financial crime, and of vigorous prosecution policies in relation to it, should not be underestimated. Fraud accounts for no less than one-third of all crimes captured by the Crime Survey for England and Wales. There were 4.3 million fraud offences recorded in the year ending in June 2020. An understanding of fraud, and in particular the way that it reflects corporate activity, is essential to the study of criminal law. The law is now mainly governed by the Fraud Act 2006. The 2006 Act sought to eliminate (a) the law’s reliance on sometimes technical distinctions between different kinds of outcome produced by fraud, and (b) the law’s reliance on ‘deception’ as an element of the wrong. A key is question is whether, in doing this, the 2006 Act made the law too broad in scope.
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13. Robbery
This chapter examines the offence of robbery. It is a very serious statutory offence that is, in essence, an aggravated form of theft. The chapter considers the circumstances in which it would be more appropriate to charge someone with theft rather than robbery. The chapter also examines the difficulties in defining the word ‘force’, which is key to establishing liability for robbery.
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14. Burglary and related offences
This chapter examines the offence of burglary in addition to a number of related offences. It is a statutory offence that turns on the defendant having been a trespasser at the time he entered the building in question. The chapter examines how this term has been interpreted by the courts and also examines some other key issues that have arisen over the years, such as the definition of ‘building’. The chapter also examines a number of related offences.
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18. Secondary liability
This chapter considers the liability of someone who aids, abets, counsels or procures someone else to commit a criminal offence. The chapter examines the actus reus and the mens rea that must be present before someone will be guilty as a secondary party. The chapter examines the now discredited doctrine of joint enterprise and considers the implications of the Supreme Court’s judgment in Jogee. The chapter evaluates the merits of the Supreme Court’s judgment and also considers past efforts at statutory reform of secondary liability.
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5. Criminal law
This chapter explains the two main sources of criminal law in the UK: legislation, that is, Acts of Parliament (or statutes), and case law. It discusses the process by which Acts of Parliament come into existence; European Union legislation and the European Convention on Human Rights; criminal courts in which cases are heard and the systems of law reporting; how to find legislation and case law using various online resources; and how to find the criminal law of overseas jurisdictions.
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9. Inchoate offences
Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses inchoate offences. Inchoate offences are where the full offence is not completed. The reason why the law fixes liability on defendants who have not fulfilled the full offence is to punish those who are willing to be involved in criminality even where the full offence is not, for one reason or another, completed. The law governing all inchoate offences is in a state of flux; the common law offence of incitement was replaced with new offences under the Serious Crime Act 2007. The law governing conspiracy and attempts was the subject of a Law Commission Report in December 2009.
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1. The basis of criminal liability
Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses what criminal liability is and is not about; the meaning of burden of proof; and the reform of criminal law. The study of criminal law is the study of liability. It is not about whether a person can be charged with a crime, or what sentence he may face if convicted, but rather it deals with whether a person is innocent or guilty of an offence (ie whether or not he can be convicted). The burden of proof means the requirement on a party to adduce sufficient evidence to persuade the fact-finder (the magistrates or the jury), to a standard set by law, that a particular fact is true.
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2. Actus reus
Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter reviews the actus reus elements of criminal offence. The actus reus consists of prohibited conduct (acts or omissions), prohibited circumstances, and/or prohibited consequences (results). A person can be criminally liable for omissions at common law, but imposing this liability can be controversial. Causation is a key part of consequence/result crimes. The prosecution must prove that the result was caused by the defendant. In order to do this, the chain of causation must first be established, and then consideration must be given to any intervention which might break the chain.
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5. Non-fatal offences against the person
Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter examines the five principal non-fatal offences against the person: assault and battery (the common assaults) and the offences under ss 47, 20, and 18 Offences Against the Person Act 1861 (OAPA). The victim’s consent may negate the offence, but whether or not it does depends to a great extent on the type of crime, what the victim knows, the extent of the harm which is caused, and matters of public policy. Stalking and harassment may amount to a crime in certain circumstances. Four of the principal assaults are aggravated if the crime committed is motivated by religious or racial hatred.
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9. Mixed Questions
The Concentrate Questions and Answers series offers the best preparation for tackling exam questions. Each book includes typical questions, diagram answer plans, suggested answers, author commentary, and advice on study skills. This chapter presents sample exam questions on mixed topics. The styles adopted for criminal law examination questions can vary enormously. Some examiners will set problem questions that focus largely on one area, others will set mixed questions which cut right across the syllabus. A mixed question requires knowledge of a wide variety of often unrelated topics. There are some classic combinations such as sexual offences and offences against the person or murder/manslaughter, but candidates should be aware that some topics, such as defences and actus reus and mens rea are pervasive. Mixed questions will generally be of two types: (i) where candidates have to cover a vast number of issues briefly; (ii) where candidates need to cover some issues briefly, but others in some depth. This chapter presents examples of mixed questions and suggested answers. Some typical areas for combination are presented.
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10. Skills for Success in Coursework Assessments
The Concentrate Questions and Answers series offers the best preparation for tackling exam questions. Each book includes typical questions, diagram answer plans, suggested answers, author commentary, and advice on study skills. This chapter deals with how to achieve success in coursework assessments in criminal law. It offers advice on how to get started, and the different approaches needed to write the longer, more detailed answers required of coursework. An example of a coursework answer is provided. Research and planning are essential. It is crucial to employ critical analysis, to stay relevant, and to stick to the word limit. Assessments must be approached logically and be tightly structured. Finally, students need to become familiar with correct referencing of legal authorities.
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1. Introduction
This introductory chapter examines the functions of criminal law and discusses the sources of criminal law. These include common law and statutes, international law, and the Human Rights Act 1998. It also considers the principle of fair labelling in criminal law and the codification of criminal law.
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11. Sexual offences
This chapter examines the law governing sexual offences found in the Sexual Offences Act 2003, focusing on non-consensual offences. Some of the controversies examined include the following: Parliament’s failure to define core elements of the offences, such as ‘consent’ and ‘sexual’ and the attempts by the courts to fill these lacunae; whether a deception perpetrated by the defendant necessarily vitiates the complainant’s consent; and the overly wide breadth of some of the offences.
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1. Introduction to the English criminal process
This chapter starts by presenting a brief sketch of the key stages and decisions of the criminal process which forms part of the English criminal justice system. The significance of those stages and decisions is discussed before they are then classified according to their nature and consequence. This is followed in the next section by differentiating between the criminal process and the system before moving on to orient the reader by outlining significant reforms that have shaped the criminal process in the past decades. There is a final concluding section.
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13. The Criminal Liability of Corporations
This chapter begins with a discussion of the law on corporate criminality, covering the difficulty in convicting companies of crimes; corporate killing; and vicarious liability. The Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007 created a new offence of corporate manslaughter. This can be committed if the way in which a company’s activities are managed or organized amounts to a gross negligence and causes someone’s death. In a limited number of crimes, a company can be guilty in respect of the acts of one of its employees under the doctrine of vicarious liability. The second part of the chapter focuses on theoretical issues in corporate liability, covering the reality of corporate crime; the clamour for corporate liability; whether a company should be guilty of a crime; and what form corporate crime should take.
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13. The Criminal Liability of Corporations
This chapter begins with a discussion of the law on corporate criminality, covering the difficulty in convicting companies of crimes; corporate killing; and vicarious liability. The Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007 created a new offence of corporate manslaughter. This can be committed where the way in which a company’s activities are managed or organized amounts to a gross negligence and causes someone’s death. In a limited number of crimes, a company can be guilty in respect of the acts of one of its employees under the doctrine of vicarious liability. The second part of the chapter focuses on theoretical issues in corporate liability, covering the reality of corporate crime; the clamour for corporate liability; whether a company should be guilty of a crime; and what form corporate crime should take.
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10. Article 7: Freedom from retroactive criminal offences and punishment
David Harris, Michael O’Boyle, Ed Bates, and Carla Buckley
This chapter discusses Article 7 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which incorporates the principle of legality, by which, in the context of criminal law, a person should only be convicted and punished on a basis of law. Article 7 prohibits the retroactive application of criminal offences and of sentences imposed for them. The guarantee in Article 7 is an essential element of the rule of law, and has as its object and purpose the provision of effective safeguards against arbitrary conviction and punishment. An exception is allowed for offences that were contrary to general principles of law recognized by civilized nations.
