- Aarhus Convention 1998
- biosafety decision-making 711–12
- Compliance Committee 257–8
- environmental human rights 288–92
- equal access to remedies 326
- non-governmental organizations, role of 91
- OECD, role of 84
- overview of international environmental law 40
- participatory rights 310–14
- public interest environmental litigation 265
- remedies for victims of environmental damage 339
- transparency, and 92
- UN regional commissions and 73
- access to information
- human rights 292
- non-governmental organizations 316
- OSPAR Commission 471
- participatory rights and 309
- sustainable development, procedural elements of 125
- transboundary claimants 320–1 see also Aarhus Convention 1998 and ECLAC Agreement 2018
- access to justice
- International Law Commission, and 154
- jurisdiction 332
- multilateral environmental agreements, and 11
- national remedies 324–30
- OECD, role of 84
- UN regional commissions, and 73 see also Aarhus Convention 1998
- accidents
- access to justice 11
- hazardous activities 155
- nuclear 11, 36, 78, 162, 205, 217, 228, 231, 325, 431–7, 563
- Three Mile Island 408 see also nuclear energy
- oil pollution see marine pollution
- polluter pays principle 343–5
- response to 206–8, 433–4 see also incidents at sea
- acid rain 168, 170, 357, 388, 456
- transboundary air pollution and 365–70
- adjudication of treaty disputes
- introduction 271–2
- Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty on Environmental Protection 274
- standing to sue under MEAs 274–6
- UNCLOS 1982 272–3
- advanced informed agreement
- Africa
- civil liability 498–9
- elephants, protection of 666
- exclusive economic zone 734
- migratory water birds 681
- Organization of African Unity 488
- South Africa Development Community shared watercourses 614–15
- standing to sue 243
- transboundary air pollution 364
- transboundary nuclear risks 426–8
- Agenda 21
- adoption of 53
- air pollution 364
- fisheries 75
- implementation 65
- intra-generational equity 124
- marine biodiversity 767–8
- marine environment, degradation of 76
- marine pollution, prevention of 507–10
- precautionary measures 180
- scope of 54
- UN environmental mandate 68–9
- air pollution see atmospheric pollution
- alien species
- international watercourses 593
- plant protection 672
- allocation of water resources see water resources
- p. 843↵Amazon 359, 364, 386, 403, 573, 580
- Amazonian Cooperation Council 579
- anadromous species
- marine living resources 740–2
- animal rights 115, 626
- Antarctica
- Antarctic Mineral Resources Commission 98
- differentiated responsibility 151
- dumping at sea 122
- ecosystem conservation 684
- integrated ecosystem management 509
- marine living resources 88
- Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 427
- polluter-pays principle 343
- radioactive waste dumping 482
- transboundary environmental harm 161
- waste disposal 188
- arbitration see dispute resolution
- archipelagic waters
- marine living resources 732
- Arctic 343, 453, 517, 524, 543, 681
- Asia
- climate change 402
- ecosystem conservation 684
- environmental impact assessments 186
- human rights 302
- marine pollution 532
- migratory water birds 681
- nature conservation 622
- toxic and persistent pollutants and waste 453
- transboundary nuclear risks 426–8
- UN regional commissions 73
- Atlantic Ocean 516
- International Council for Exploration of the Seas 101
- atmospheric pollution
- conclusions 403
- customary law 361–2
- degradation of global atmosphere 357–9
- global environmental responsibility 361–2
- international policy 362–4
- introduction 356–7
- legal status of atmosphere 359–61
- regulation of atmosphere 362–4
- autonomous treaty bodies
- introduction 88–9
- membership 89–90
- NGO participation 90–2
- non-participants 95–6
- regulatory decision-making 93–5
- transparency 92
- treaty supervision and compliance 251–2
- Baltic Sea
- Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas 540
- Basel Convention 1989 20, 42, 70, 79, 84–5, 94, 96, 112, 181, 219
- atmospheric pollution 369
- marine pollution 567
- biosafety 710
- hazardous waste 787
- international trade 785
- pollutants and waste 454, 456–8, 463, 476, 485, 487–91
- assessment of Convention 499–500
- environmentally sound management 494–6
- implementation and supervisory institutions 496
- prior informed consent 492–3
- scope of Convention 491–2
- State responsibility 497–8
- reporting and monitoring 252
- Bhopal chemical plant disaster 318, 328–9, 332, 449, 500
- biodiversity
- alien species see alien species
- Biodiversity Convention see Convention on Biological Diversity 1992
- Cartagena Protocol 2000
- Advanced Informed Agreement 709–11
- biosafety, regulation of 709–11
- non-compliance and liability 716–18
- participation in biosafety decision-making 711–12
- public awareness 711–12
- risk assessment 712–15
- subsequent developments 716–18
- trade implications 715–16
- p. 844↵ecological footprint of humanity 618
- Global Biodiversity Outlook 619
- biological resources
- access to 684
- common concern 144
- exhaustible natural resources 782
- genetic resources, access to 803
- biosafety
- Biodiversity Convention 1992 700–1
- Black Sea
- Brundtland Report 52, 58–9, 124
- Canada
- US–Canadian International Joint Commission 611–14
- capacity building 47, 51, 54, 60, 83, 87, 96, 111, 114, 124, 259, 389, 463, 632–4, 701, 710–11, 716
- Caribbean
- biodiversity 684
- Caribbean LBS Protocol 1999 465
- climate change 358
- nature conservation 633
- regional organizations 9
- UN regional commissions 73
- UNEP’s Regional Seas Programme 468–9
- waste, international trade in 488
- Cartagena Protocol 2000
- advanced informed agreement 709–11
- biodiversity 686
- compliance 635
- financial assistance, provision of 632
- genetically modified organisms 692
- non-compliance and liability 716–18
- participation in biosafety decision-making 711–12
- precautionary measures 182
- public awareness 711–12
- risk assessment 712–15
- subsequent developments 716–18
- trade implications 715–16
- catadromous species
- marine living resources 742
- certification
- CITES 1973 634
- certified emission reductions 389
- chemicals
- Environmental Modification Convention 1977 215
- genetic resources, access to 801
- Global Environment Facility 82
- hazardous chemicals 786–7
- healthy, sustainable or ecologically sound environment 298
- marine living resources 770
- reporting and monitoring 252
- sustainable development goals 58
- trade in hazardous chemicals and pesticides 786–7
- transboundary trade 500
- UN Environment Assembly 69
- UNEP Guidelines 492 see also persistent organic pollutants
- Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident 37, 408–9, 411, 414, 415, 416
- choice of forum 65, 264–5, 330, 332, 334
- choice of law 323, 330–2, 334–6, 561
- CITES 1973 see endangered species
- civil liability see liability
- clean development mechanism 389
- climate change
- compliance 395–8
- conclusions 403–4
- damage resulting from 399–400
- environmental impact assessments 398–9
- human rights and 292–5
- introduction 378–80
- Kyoto Protocol 1997
- assessment of climate change regime 401–2
- p. 845↵commitments 384–6
- impact on greenhouse gas emissions 386–7
- market-based mechanisms 387–91
- loss resulting from 399–400
- market-based mechanisms
- Clean Development Mechanism 389
- economic background 388
- international emission trading 390–1
- introduction 387
- joint implementation 390
- Paris Agreement 2015
- assessment of climate change regime 402–3
- central obligations 393
- differentiation 394
- human rights 394
- long approach to 391–2
- objectives 392–3
- Paris Rulebook 395
- supervision 395–8
- UN Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992 380–4
- assessment of climate change regime 400–1 see also atmospheric pollution
- coastal states
- emergencies at sea, intervention in 551–4
- Code of Conduct on Responsible Fishing 1995 75, 735, 743, 751, 756
- codification
- post-UNCLOS developments 744
- writings of publicists 31
- Commission for Environmental Cooperation 276
- Commission on Sustainable Development 53
- Committee on Environmental Protection 98
- ‘common but differentiated responsibility’ 111, 114, 124, 146–52, 363, 382–3, 391, 461
- common concern of mankind 42, 61, 131, 136, 146
- compliance procedures 706
- domestic environment of states 143
- global environment 142
- implications of 143–5
- international watercourses 594
- State responsibility 243–4
- common heritage 42, 97–8
- atmospheric pollution 360
- ecosystems 679
- marine pollution 548
- nature conservation 624
- treaty compliance 251
- common management
- common property
- atmosphere, and 359–60
- natural resources 134–5
- ‘wise use’ 683
- common spaces
- ‘common concern’ 142
- conflicting uses 40
- consultation and notification 205
- equitable and reasonable use 134
- foreseeability of harm 170
- liability and compensation schemes 560
- natural resources 624
- nuclear risks 426–7
- prior informed consent 492
- sovereignty 131
- state responsibility 246
- waste disposal 493
- compensation
- civil liability 336
- institutional supervisory bodies 709
- non-discrimination 325
- Paris Convention Scheme 445–7
- Protocol on Liability and Compensation 497
- salvage 555
- State responsibility 497–8
- compliance
- climate change 395–8
- conservation conventions
- biodiversity 701–7
- biosafety 716–18
- endangered species, international trade in 665
- migratory species of wild animals 658
- reporting, implementation and compliance 635
- wetlands of international importance 642–3
- world heritage 649–51
- ozone layer, protection of 375–6
- treaty compliance
- Aarhus Convention Compliance Committee 257–8
- autonomous treaty bodies 251–2
- breach of treaty 247–9
- fact-finding 253
- p. 846↵inspection 253–4
- Kyoto Protocol Compliance Committee 258–60
- monitoring 252–3
- Montreal Protocol 1987 256–7
- non-compliance 247–9
- non-compliance procedures 254–60
- reporting obligations 252–3
- research 253
- supervisory techniques 252–4
- treaty supervisory bodies 249–52
- trusteeship 251
- compulsory licensing
- international trade 806–7
- conciliation and inquiry
- choice of forum 264
- compulsory 800
- marine living resources 734
- marine pollution 554
- non-binding 397
- Rhine Commission 612
- treaty compliance 249
- Congress of Vienna 573
- conservation
- biodiversity
- Biodiversity Convention 686–709
- Cartagena Protocol 2000 709–18
- ecological footprint of humanity 618
- Global Biodiversity Outlook 619
- Nagoya Protocol 718–20
- Biodiversity Convention 1992
- compliance procedures 706–7
- dispute settlement 708
- incentives to participation and compliance 701–6
- institutional supervisory bodies 707–8
- jurisdictional scope 687–9
- liability and responsibility 708–9
- objectives of 686–7
- obligations under 692–701
- Preamble 689–92
- Cartagena Protocol 2000
- Advanced Informed Agreement 709–11
- biosafety, regulation of 709–11
- non-compliance and liability 716–18
- participation in biosafety decision-making 711–12
- public awareness 711–12
- risk assessment 712–15
- subsequent developments 716–18
- trade implications 715–16
- conclusions 721–3
- deserts, protection of 672–6
- exhaustible natural resources 782–4
- global wildlife conventions
- effectiveness 636–7
- international trade in endangered species 660–9
- migratory species of wild animals 651–60
- wetlands of international importance 637–44
- world heritage 645–51
- international trade in endangered species
- assessment of 667–9
- compliance 665
- controlling trade 661–3
- implementation 664
- institutional supervision 665–7
- listing process 663–4
- objectives 660–1
- key issues 617–21
- marine living resources see marine living resources
- migratory species of wild animals
- assessment of 658–60
- compliance 658
- conservation techniques 652–6
- implementation 658
- institutional supervision 656–8
- listing 652–6
- scope of 651–2
- nature protection, role of law in 621–7
- plant protection 669–72
- regional conventions 680–3
- regulatory techniques
- capacity building 632–4
- compliance reviews 635
- financial assistance 632–4
- habitat protection 629–30
- listing 627–9
- monitoring 634–5
- permitting 627–9
- protected areas 630–2
- reporting obligations 634–5
- wetlands of international importance
- assessment of 643–4
- compliance 642–3
- implementation 642–3
- listing 639–42
- scope of 637–9
- wise use of wetland sites 639–42
- biodiversity
- consultation
- biodiversity 689
- climate change 367
- fisheries 75
- human rights 300
- ILC Articles 154
- p. 847↵preventative measures 201
- prior informed consent 492–4
- shared natural resources 132
- transboundary co-operation 200
- continental shelf
- Convention on the Continental Shelf 1958 26
- marine living resources 736–7
- pollutants and waste 485
- Coastal State rights and obligations 203
- Convention on Biological Diversity 1992
- compliance procedures 706–7
- dispute settlement 708
- incentives to participation and compliance
- access to and transfer of technology 704–6
- fair and equitable sharing of benefits 702–3
- financial incentives 703–4
- institutional supervisory bodies 707–8
- international trade
- compulsory licensing 806–7
- genetic resources, access to 801–3
- introduction 799–801
- patentability 803–5
- technology, access to and transfer of 805–6
- jurisdictional scope 687–9
- liability and responsibility 708–9
- objectives of 686–7
- obligations under
- alien species 695–7
- biological resources 692–3
- biosafety 700–1
- conservation obligations 692–3
- indigenous people’s rights, role of 697–700
- living modified organisms 700–1
- sustainable use 694
- co-operation
- environmental protection 200–8
- incidents at sea 549–50
- regional co-operation
- generally 607–8
- International Commission for Protection of the Rhine 608–11
- shared watercourses in South Africa development community 614–15
- US–Canadian International Joint Commission 611–14
- regional fisheries bodies 754–8
- corporate environmental accountability 345–9
- Council of Europe 46, 290, 310, 335, 337, 350, 409, 625, 628, 679, 680, 695
- crime
- criminal sanctions 285
- dumping of nuclear and industrial waste 488
- environmental crime
- crimes against international law 352–4
- enforcement through criminal law 350–1
- extraterritorial criminal jurisdiction 351–2
- introduction 349–50
- universal jurisdiction 352–4
- International Criminal Court 112
- liability for environmental damage 225
- transnational organised crime 662
- customary international law
- biodiversity 688
- codification and development of law 107–10
- corporate environmental accountability 346
- dispute resolution 261
- environmental protection 809
- Global Environmental Responsibility 150
- harmonization of environmental liability 340
- military activities 216
- natural resources, sustainable use of 131
- treaty supervision and compliance 247
- damage see environmental damage
- p. 848↵Danube
- basin concept 573
- Danube Convention 1994 591
- Danube River Protection Commission 579
- equitable utilization 583
- integrated management 595
- international jurisprudence 156
- international watercourses, protection of 574
- shared water resources 238
- transboundary environmental co-operation 601
- UN regional commissions 73
- deep seabed
- differentiated responsibility 151
- extraterritorial criminal jurisdiction 351
- legal status of natural resources 64
- public interest litigation 265
- State responsibility 557
- deserts, protection of 672–6
- developing States
- Biodiversity Convention 1992 690
- development aid 170
- differentiation
- global environmental responsibility 146–52
- Paris Agreement 2015 394
- diplomacy
- conciliation and inquiry 278–9
- good offices 278
- introduction 277
- mediation 278
- dispute resolution
- adjudication of treaty disputes
- introduction 271–2
- Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty on Environmental Protection 274
- standing to sue under MEAs 274–6
- UNCLOS 1982 272–3
- arbitration 10, 169, 249, 261–3, 376, 708, 758, 800–1, 808
- choice of forum 264
- Permanent Court of Arbitration 14
- Biodiversity Convention 1992 708
- choice of forum 264–5
- diplomatic methods of dispute resolution
- conciliation and inquiry 278–9
- good offices 278
- introduction 277
- mediation 278
- international environmental court 267–70
- special procedures 267–70
- treaty supervisory bodies 276–7
- World Trade Organization 808–10
- adjudication of treaty disputes
- due diligence
- alternatives to 169–70
- CITES 1973 743–4
- criminal law enforcement 350
- customary law 157
- fault, and 224–5
- flag states 759–60
- global environmental responsibility 361–2
- marine living resources 743–4
- marine pollution 513–14
- obligation to use 163–7
- prevention of significant harm 212
- dumping at sea
- enforcement 484–5
- geo-engineering and 483–4
- licensing 484–5
- London Dumping Convention, assessment of 486–7
- meaning 481–2
- permissibility of 479–80
- prohibition, reasons for 481
- radioactive waste 482–3
- regional treaties 486
- Earth Charter 53, 104
- eco-labels
- international trade restrictions 792–3
- ECOLEX database 104
- ecologically sound environment, right to
- current international law 296
- generally 295–6
- pros and cons of 297–9
- Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) 57–8, 63, 67, 72, 103, 266
- Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) 73
- economic development
- environmental protection, integration with 117–19
- ecosystems
- Fish Stocks Agreement 1995 750–2
- international watercourses
- environmental agreements, relevance of 596
- environmental harm 583–8
- equitable utilization 583–8
- permissible uses of 581–3
- river pollution and 581–3
- sustainability and conservation of water resources 596–600
- transboundary environmental co-operation 601–7
- transboundary pollution and environmental harm 588–92
- UN Watercourses Convention 1997 592–6
- p. 849↵UNECE Watercourses Convention 1992 595
- elephants see ivory, trade in
- emergencies at sea see incidents at sea
- emergency co-operation 606–7
- emissions trading 390–1
- endangered species
- blanket prohibitions, usefulness of 693
- CITES 1973
- assessment of 667–9
- compliance 665
- controlling trade 661–3
- fish species 730
- implementation 664
- institutional supervision 665–7
- listing process 663–4
- objectives 660–1
- criminal law enforcement 350
- ecosystem preservation 596
- regional conventions 681
- world heritage in danger 649–50
- environment
- definition 5–7
- international concern 9–10
- protection of see environmental protection
- environmental agreements
- fish stocks 758–9
- international watercourses 596
- marine pollution from land-based sources 469–70
- nuclear safety 416–23
- relevance of 596
- UN mandate and 68
- environmental crimes see crime
- environmental damage
- climate change, resulting from 399–400
- liability for see liability
- marine pollution
- civil liability for oil pollution from ships 561–3
- generally 564
- oil pollution liability and compensation scheme 564–6
- other forms of pollution from ships 566–8
- polluter-pays principle 559–60
- state responsibility 557–8
- meaning of 208–11
- pollution 212–14
- thresholds of serious or significant harm 211–12
- transboundary damage, allocation of loss for 338–41
- environmental harm
- duty to prevent see environmental protection
- foreseeability
- burden of proof ofrisk 176–7
- conclusions 183
- introduction 170–2
- legal status and implications 177–83
- Rio Declaration 1992 172–5
- international watercourses 583–8
- liability for see liability
- meaning 208–11
- serious or significant harm, thresholds of 211–12
- transboundary harm 230–2
- transboundary pollution and
- due diligence, alternatives to 169–70
- due diligence, obligation to use 163–7
- duty to prevent, reduce and control harm 159–63
- equitable balancing 167–9
- impermissible transboundary risks 167–9
- international jurisprudence 156–9
- International Law Commission 154–6
- introduction 152–3
- non-discrimination 169–70
- Rio Declaration 1992 153
- environmental impact assessments
- climate change 398–9
- evolution in international law 184–7
- judicial review of 197–9
- and the marine environment 473–6
- monitoring 199
- procedure 193–5
- scope and content 195–7
- environmental information see access to information
- environmental justice see access to justice
- environmental liability see liability
- environmental nuisances
- greening human rights 303–6
- environmental protection
- adequacy of current international law 11–14
- codification of law 107–12
- conclusions 218–19
- economic development, integration with 117–19
- environmental damage
- meaning of 208–11
- pollution 212–14
- thresholds of serious or significant harm 211–12
- environmental impact assessments
- EIA process 193–5
- evolution in international law 184–7
- judicial review 197–9
- monitoring 199
- requirement for transboundary EIAs 191–3
- scope and content 195–7
- transboundary EIAs 187–90
- p. 850↵global environmental responsibility, principles of
- common but differentiated responsibility 146–52
- environment as a ‘common concern’ 142–5
- erga omnes status 145–6
- precautionary approach 152
- international concern 9–10
- military activities 214–18
- precautionary principle and foreseeability of harm
- burden of proof of risk 176–7
- conclusions 183
- introduction 170–2
- legal status and implications 177–83
- Rio Declaration 1992 172–5
- reasons for 8–9
- Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 1992
- development of law 113–15
- precautionary principle and foreseeability of harm 172–5
- transboundary pollution and environmental harm, prevention of 153
- role of law in 10–11
- sustainable development
- elements of 117–25
- influence on law 125–6
- obligation to develop sustainably 127–9
- right to 116–17
- transboundary co-operation
- emergency notification, response and assistance 206–8
- introduction 200–2
- notification and consultation of transboundary risk 202–6
- transboundary pollution and environmental harm, prevention of
- due diligence, alternatives to 169–70
- due diligence, obligation to use 163–7
- duty to prevent, reduce and control harm 159–63
- equitable balancing 167–9
- impermissible transboundary risks 167–9
- international jurisprudence 156–9
- International Law Commission 154–6
- introduction 152–3
- non-discrimination 169–70
- Rio Declaration 1992 153
- environmental rights
- introduction 282–4
- national remedies, equal access to
- implementation of policy 328–30
- international law 325–6
- limitations of 330
- non-discrimination in international law 325–6
- principle 324–5
- regional provision 326–8
- environmental risk
- biosafety, conservation of 712–15
- burden of proof 176–7
- foreseeability
- burden of proof of risk 176–7
- conclusions 183
- introduction 170–2
- legal status and implications 177–83
- Rio Declaration 1992 172–5
- negotiation in cases of 601–6
- nuclear risks, control of
- international obligations 426–8
- nuclear emergencies 431–4
- nuclear installations 429–31
- risk avoidance 473–6
- environmental taxes
- equal access
- environmental information see access to information
- justice see access to justice
- equity
- equitable balancing
- transboundary pollution 167–9
- fair and equitable sharing of benefits 702–3
- intra-generational equity 124
- equitable balancing
- erga omnes 145–6
- p. 851↵Euratom
- international nuclear policy 423–4
- Europe
- acid rain 168
- biodiversity 680–1
- cultural heritage 679
- dispute resolution 271
- environmental impact assessments 185–8
- habitat conservation 628
- international watercourses
- river pollution and permissible uses 582
- judicial review 197
- landscape conservation 679
- marine environment, pollution from land-based sources 469–70
- migratory species 651
- nature protection 622
- non-discrimination 169
- non-governmental organisations 267
- patentability 803
- polluter-pays principle344–5
- precautionary principle 173
- world heritage 645 see also Council of Europe, Rhine
- European Court of Human Rights see human rights
- European Economic Area 333
- European Energy Charter 65, 125
- exhaustible natural resources 782–4
- exclusive economic zone (EEZ)
- fact-finding
- treaty supervision and compliance 253
- financial assistance
- Global Environment Facility 82–3
- nature conservation 632–4
- World Bank 80–2
- Fish Stocks Agreement 1995
- application of 748–9
- conservation 750–2
- ecosystem protection 750–2
- exclusive economic zones, compatibility of 758–9
- high seas conservation measures, and 758–9
- illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing 759–62
- precautionary approach 752–4
- regional fisheries bodies, co-operation through 754–8
- sustainable use 750–2
- fisheries
- Committee on Fisheries 75
- dumping at sea see dumping at sea
- fact-finding and 253
- inspection 254
- international commission 99
- precautionary approach 177–8
- protection of see Food and Agriculture Organization
- sustainability 85, 138 see also marine pollution
- flag states
- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
- international governance 73–6
- marine living resources 744–5
- foreseeability of harm
- burden of proof of risk 176–7
- conclusions 183
- introduction 170–2
- legal status and implications 177–83
- Rio Declaration 1992 172–5 see also environmental harm
- forests, protection of 672–3, 676–8
- forum shopping 332–5
- General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
- environmental exceptions 778–81
- exhaustible natural resources, conservation of 782–4
- health, protection of 781–2
- implementation and operation of 78–9
- unilateral action 759
- General Assembly of the United Nations 63–6
- international co-operation, promotion of 510
- genetic resources
- international trade 799–803
- p. 852↵genetically modified organisms (GMO) 79, 170–1, 312, 690, 692
- geoengineering
- dumping at sea 483–4
- Global Biodiversity Outlook 619
- global environment
- Global Environment Facility 60, 82–3
- global environmental responsibility
- atmospheric pollution 361–2
- common but differentiated responsibility 146–52
- environment as a ‘common concern’ 142–5
- erga omnes status 145–6
- precautionary approach 152
- global warming 144, 357–8, 398, 402–3, 504, 724, 782 see also climate change
- global wildlife conventions
- effectiveness 636–7
- international trade in endangered species 660–9
- migratory species of wild animals 651–60
- wetlands of international importance 637–44
- world heritage 645–51
- good neighbourliness 132, 152, 200, 227, 244, 475, 492
- good offices 278
- Great Apes Survival Project 633
- greenhouse gas emissions
- climate change and 386–7
- habitat protection
- harmonization
- environmental liability
- ILC Principles on Allocation of Loss for Transboundary Damage 338–41
- introduction 335–7
- Lugano Convention 1993 337–8
- polluter pays principle 341–5 see also international law
- environmental liability
- hazardous chemicals see chemicals
- hazardous waste
- Cairo Guidelines 20
- criminal law enforcement 350
- dumping at sea see dumping at sea
- international trade restrictions 787
- management of 58
- permissibility of trade in 487–91
- transfrontier movements 84–5 see also waste, international regulation of
- health and safety
- healthy environment, right to
- current international law 296
- generally 295–6
- pros and cons of 297–9
- Helsinki Commission 770
- Helsinki Convention 1974 88, 465, 469–70, 506, 512, 519
- Helsinki Declaration 574, 595
- Helsinki Rules 572, 573, 586, 599, 606
- high seas
- marine pollution, prevention of 548–9
- human rights
- conclusions 321–2
- greening existing human rights
- environmental nuisances 303–6
- generally 302–3
- indigenous culture and the environment 306–7
- healthy, sustainable or ecologically sound environment, right to
- current international law 296
- generally 295–6
- integrating sustainable economic development and human rights 299–302
- pros and cons of 297–9
- human rights treaties
- environment in 287–90
- extraterritorial application of 319–21
- participatory rights 314–16
- introduction 286–7
- Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 290–1
- participatory rights
- Aarhus Convention 1998 310–14
- ECLAC Agreement 2018 314
- generally 307–10
- human rights treaties 314–16
- non-governmental organisations and 316–19
- illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing 759–62
- incidents at sea
- controlling pollution emergencies at sea 550–6
- international co-operation and assistance 549–50
- p. 853↵pollution response in international seabed area 556–7
- indigenous culture
- greening human rights 306–7
- indigenous people
- Biodiversity Convention 1992 697–700
- industrial accidents 169, 203, 326, 342, 607 see also accidents
- information exchange
- international watercourses 606
- inspections
- treaty supervision and compliance 253–4
- institutional supervision
- Biodiversity Convention 1992 707–8
- endangered species, international trade in 665–7
- migratory species of wild animals 656–8
- intellectual property
- biodiversity and 684
- access to and transfer of technology 705–6
- biosafety 700
- fair and equitable sharing of benefits 702
- intra-generational equity 124
- biodiversity and 684
- inter-generational equity
- Biodiversity Convention 1992 691–2
- sustainable development 121–3
- Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission 101
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 101–2
- internal waters
- environmental jurisdiction 538–9
- UNCLOS, impact of 537–8
- International Atomic Energy Agency
- health and safety standards, legal effect of 412–15
- health and safety, powers of 411–12
- international governance 78
- international inspectorate and review body, as 415–16
- objectives of 410–11
- soft law 35
- International Commission for Protection of the Rhine 579, 608–11
- International Commission for Radiological Protection 72, 412
- International Council for Exploration of the Seas 101
- International Council for Science 101
- International Court of Justice 13
- customary law 24
- inter-generational equity and 123
- judicial decisions 30
- jurisprudence 156–9
- legal maxims, application of 28
- normative force of multilateral environmental treaties 26–7
- soft law 35–6
- treaty interpretation 21–2
- International Criminal Court
- development of international law 112
- establishment of 352
- international environmental court 267–70
- international environmental disputes see dispute resolution
- international environmental law
- introduction 1–2
- meaning 2–5 see also international law
- international environmental policy
- atmospheric pollution 362–4
- concept of sustainable development 57–62
- nuclear energy
- effectiveness of 425
- Euratom Treaty 1957 423–4
- international agreements on nuclear safety 416–23
- International Atomic Energy Agency 410–16
- International Labour Organisation Convention 1960 425
- international regulatory bodies 423–5
- Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel and Radioactive Waste Management 1997 421–3
- Nuclear Safety Convention 1994 418–21
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 424–5
- UN Conference on Environment and Development 1992 52–5
- UN Conference on Sustainable Development 2012 56–7
- UN Conference on the Human Environment 1972 50–2
- World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 55
- International Finance Corporation 80–2, 348
- p. 854↵international governance
- autonomous treaty bodies
- introduction 88–9
- membership 89–90
- NGO participation 90–2
- non-participants 95–6
- regulatory decision-making 93–5
- transparency 92
- conclusions 104–6
- Food and Agricultural Organization 73–6
- Global Environment Facility 82–3
- International Atomic Energy Agency 78
- international environmental policy, development of
- concept of sustainable development 57–62
- UN Conference on Environment and Development 1992 52–5
- UN Conference on Sustainable Development 2012 56–7
- UN Conference on the Human Environment 1972 50–2
- World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 55
- International Maritime Organization 76–8
- international regulatory regimes
- autonomous treaty bodies 88–96
- conclusions 99–100
- international resource management bodies 96–9
- introduction 85–8
- introduction 45–50
- non-governmental organizations
- autonomous treaty bodies 90–2
- International Union for the Conservation of Nature 103–4
- role of 102–3
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 83–5
- scientific organizations 100–2
- UN Environment Programme
- UN environment’s mandate 68–9
- role in developing international environmental law 69–71
- United Nations
- Economic and Social Council 67
- environmental competence 62–3
- General Assembly 63–6
- global environmental organization, as 71
- principal organs 63–7
- regional commissions 73
- Security Council 66–7
- specialized agencies 72
- UN Environment Programme 68–71
- World Bank 80–2
- World Trade Organization 78–80
- autonomous treaty bodies
- International Labour Organization
- establishment 249
- merchant shipping standards 526
- international law
- codification and development of 31–3
- environmental damage, liability for 225–30
- law-making process 14–18
- overview 38–44
- soft law 35–8
- sources of
- custom 24–7
- general principles 27–30
- judicial decisions 30
- treaties 18–23
- writings of publicists 31
- United Nations
- conference declarations and General Assembly resolutions 33–5
- International Law Commission
- allocation of loss for transboundary damage 338–41
- articles on liability 232–3
- transboundary environmental harm 154–6
- universality of participation 23
- International Maritime Organization
- international governance 76–8
- soft law 35
- international policy see international environmental policy
- international regulatory regimes
- autonomous treaty bodies
- introduction 88–9
- membership 89–90
- NGO participation 90–2
- non-participants 95–6
- regulatory decision-making 93–5
- transparency 92
- conclusions 99–100
- international resource management bodies 96–9
- introduction 85–8
- autonomous treaty bodies
- International Seabed Authority 97–8, 135, 548, 556
- international trade
- chemicals and pesticides 456–9
- conclusions 810–12
- Convention on Biological Diversity 1992
- compulsory licensing 806–7
- genetic resources, access to 801–3
- introduction 799–801
- patentability 803–5
- technology, access to and transfer of 805–6
- endangered species
- assessment of 667–9
- compliance 665
- controlling trade 661–3
- p. 855↵fish species 730
- implementation 664
- institutional supervision 665–7
- listing process 663–4
- objectives 660–1
- General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
- environmental exceptions 778–81
- exhaustible natural resources, conservation of 782–4
- health, protection of 781–2
- global environment, improvement of
- natural resources, conservation of 796
- process and production methods 794–6
- investment, and 807–8
- multilateral environmental agreements
- WTO agreements, and 784–6
- technical and sanitary trade restrictions
- eco-labels 792–3
- import restraints 788–91
- introduction 787
- recycling and repackaging 791–2
- trade restrictions
- hazardous chemicals and pesticides 786–7
- hazardous waste 787
- improving global environment 794–6
- technical and sanitary trade restrictions 787–93
- TRIPS Agreement
- compulsory licensing 806–7
- genetic resources, access to 801–3
- introduction 799–801
- patentability 803–5
- technology, access to and transfer of 805–6
- waste
- Basel Convention 1989, assessment of 499–500
- Basel Convention 1989, scope of 491–2
- civil liability 497–8
- environmentally sound management 494–6
- implementation 496–7
- permissibility of trade in hazardous wastes and substances 487–91
- prior informed consent, requirement of 492–4
- State responsibility 497–8
- supervisory institutions 496–7
- World Trade Organization
- Agreement on Trade‑Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights see TRIPs Agreement
- dispute settlement 808–10
- generally 775–8
- International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea 13, 156–9, 164, 167, 261, 263–8, 273
- International Tropical Timber Organization 64–5
- International Union for the Conservation of Nature 65, 103–4, 266, 631–2
- international watercourses
- conclusions 615–16
- ecosytems, protection of
- environmental agreements, relevance of 596
- environmental harm 583–8
- equitable utilization 583–8
- permissible uses of 581–3
- river pollution of 581–3
- sustainability and conservation of water resources 596–600
- transboundary environmental co-operation 601–7
- transboundary pollution and environmental harm 588–92
- UN Watercourses Convention 1997 592–6
- UNECE Watercourses Convention 1992 595
- introduction 571–2
- marine environment and 476–7
- regional co-operation
- generally 607–8
- International Commission for Protection of the Rhine 608–11
- shared watercourses in South Africa development community 614–15
- US–Canadian International Joint Commission 611–14
- resources, principle of allocation
- common management 579–81
- equitable utilization 576–8
- territorial integrity 576
- territorial sovereignty 575–6
- scope of international law of 572–5
- sustainability
- sustainable development and water resources law 596–9
- sustainable utilization and right to water 599–600
- International Whaling Commission 35, 75, 101
- interstate claims
- environmental damage, liability for 233–5 see also dispute resolution
- intra-generational equity
- sustainable development 124
- p. 856↵investments
- international trade and 807–8
- ius cogens 26, 109, 116
- ivory, trade in 661–3, 666
- Johannesburg Plan of Implementation 55, 455, 719
- judicial decisions
- equitable utilization 577
- judicial review
- environmental impact assessments 197–9
- jurisdiction
- Biodiversity Convention 1992 687–9
- coastal and port state environmental jurisdiction
- beyond territorial sea 544–7
- continental shelf 547–8
- exclusive economic zone 542–4
- internal waters 537–9
- territorial sea 537–41
- flag states 524–7
- MARPOL Convention 1973/78 533–4
- transboundary environmental litigation 332–5
- Kyoto Protocol 1997
- assessment of climate change regime 401–2
- commitments 384–6
- impact on greenhouse gas emissions 386–7
- Kyoto Protocol Compliance Committee 258–60
- landscape, protection of 672–3, 678–80
- Latin America
- environmental impact assessments 186
- environmental litigation 40
- sustainable development 116
- toxic waste 454
- transboundary claimants 321 see also North America and South America
- League of Nations 62, 242
- liability
- Biodiversity Convention 1992, under 708–9
- environmental damage
- basis of State responsibility 223–4
- conclusions 246–7
- development of law 230–3
- fault and due diligence 224–5
- interaction of civil liability and interstate claims 233-5
- international law 225–30
- International Law Commission’s articles on liability 232–3
- local remedies rule 233–5
- standing to bring claims 242–6
- transboundary harm 230–2
- utility of State responsibility 246–7
- harmonization of environmental liability
- ILC Principles on Allocation of Loss for Transboundary Damage 338–41
- introduction 335–7
- Lugano Convention 1993 337–8
- polluter pays principle 341–5
- marine pollution damage
- civil liability for oil pollution from ships 561–3
- environmental damage 564
- oil pollution liability and compensation scheme 564–6
- other forms of pollution from ships 566–8
- polluter-pays principle 559–60
- state responsibility 557–8
- nuclear damage, civil liability for
- bringing claims under Conventions 448–9
- channelling liability 443–4
- introduction 438–40
- loss, allocation of 444–8
- no-fault liability 441–3
- non-party claims 449–50
- nuclear damage and environment 450
- scheme of Conventions 440–1
- nuclear damage, State responsibility for
- law reform 437–8
- State claims 435–7
- strict or absolute liability 434–5
- waste, international trade in 497–8
- licensing
- dumping at sea 484–5
- listing
- grey list 469
- mercury 462
- migratory species of wild animals 652–6
- pollutants 214
- red list 104
- regulatory techniques 627–9
- wetlands of international importance 639–42
- world heritage 645–8
- litigation
- public interest 265–7
- role of 260–4
- living modified organisms see genetically modified organisms
- local remedies rule 233–5
- loss
- allocation of 444–8
- climate change, resulting from 399–400
- transboundary damage 338–41
- marine biodiversity
- Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 768–72
- evolution of the law 767
- relationship between UNCLOS and CBD 772–3
- UN sustainable development goals 767–8
- marine environment
- environmental impact assessments 473–6
- international watercourses, relationship with law of 476–7
- monitoring 473–6
- pollution from land-based sources
- European agreements 469–70
- global regime for land-based sources 477–9
- introduction 464–7
- Mediterranean Sea 471–3
- North Sea 471–3
- regional adoption of common standards 467–73
- UNEP Regional Seas Programme 468–9
- risk avoidance 473–6
- Marine Environment Protection Committee 76, 527
- marine living resources
- conclusions 773–4
- Fish Stocks Agreement 1995
- application of 748–9
- conservation 750–2
- ecosystem protection 750–2
- exclusive economic zone, compatibility of 758–9
- high seas conservation measure, and 758–9
- illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing 759–62
- introduction 747–8
- precautionary approach 752–4
- regional fisheries bodies, co-operation through 754–8
- sustainable use 750–2
- key issues 724–7
- marine biodiversity
- Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 768–72
- evolution of the law 767
- relationship between UNCLOS and CBD 772–3
- UN sustainable development goals 767–8
- marine mammals
- International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling 1946 764–6
- legal status of 762–3
- UNCLOS and 764
- overview of law 727–30
- post-UNCLOS developments
- Food and Agriculture Organization 744–5
- high seas fisheries, management of 746–7
- high seas living resources 744–5
- UN Fish Stocks Agreement 1995 747–62
- UNCLOS
- anadromous species 740–2
- archipelagic waters 732
- catadromous species 742
- competence over conservation 731–8
- continental shelf 736–7
- deep seabed 737–8
- endangered species 742–4
- exclusive economic zone 732–5
- general approach 731
- high seas 735–6
- highly migratory species 738–40
- rays 742–4
- sharks 742–4
- species approach 738–44
- terrritorial sea 732
- marine mammals
- International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling 1946 764–6
- legal status of 762–3
- UNCLOS and 764 see also seals, sharks, whales
- marine pollution
- coastal and port state environmental jurisdiction
- beyond territorial sea 544–7
- continental shelf 547–8
- exclusive economic zone 542–4
- internal waters 537–9
- territorial sea 537–41
- conclusions 568–70
- deep seabed 548–9
- dumping at sea
- enforcement 484–5
- geo engineering and 483–4
- international policy 454
- licensing 484–5
- London Dumping Convention, assessment of 486–7
- meaning 481–2
- permissibility of 479–80
- prior consent and 476
- prohibition, reasons for 481
- radioactive waste 482–3
- regional treaties 486
- p. 858↵emergencies at sea
- coastal state powers of intervention 551–4
- general obligations 550–1
- notification by vessels and offshore installations 554–5
- salvage 555–6
- enforcement jurisdiction beyond territorial sea
- pollution regulations in EEZ 544–5
- port state enforcement of pollution regulations 545–6
- safeguards and limitations 546–7
- exclusive economic zone
- coastal and port state environmental jurisdiction 542–4
- enforcement jurisdiction beyond territorial sea 544–5
- high seas 548–9
- incidents at sea
- controlling pollution emergencies at sea 550–6
- international co-operation and assistance 549–50
- pollution response in international seabed area 556–7
- introduction 503–5
- liability for marine pollution damage
- civil liability for oil pollution from ships 561–3
- environmental damage 564
- oil pollution liability and compensation scheme 564–6
- other forms of pollution from ships 566–8
- polluter-pays principle 559–60
- state responsibility 557–8
- MARPOL Convention 1973/78
- assessing impact of 534–7
- certification and inspection 530–3
- introduction 527–8
- jurisdiction 533–4
- MARPOL annexes 528–9
- regional seas
- Baltic 519
- Black Sea 520
- Mediterranean 520
- North Sea 518–19
- north-east Atlantic 518–19
- regional rules, 514–18
- regional seas agreements 518–22
- UNCLOS 514–18
- UNEP regional seas programmes 521–2
- terrritorial sea
- arrest of ships 541
- control of vessel pollution 539–41
- environmental jurisdiction 538–9
- UNCLOS, impact of 537–8
- coastal and port state environmental jurisdiction
- Maritime Safety Committee 76
- MARPOL Convention 1973/78
- assessing impact of 534–7
- certification and inspection 530–3
- introduction 527–8
- jurisdiction 533–4
- MARPOL annexes 528–9
- mediation
- diplomatic methods of dispute resolution 278
- Mediterranean Sea
- dumping at sea 486
- hazardous waste, trade in 488
- integrated coastal zone management 508
- international watercourses 477
- marine environment
- pollution of from land-based sources 471–3
- transboundary movement of hazardous waste 465
- Mekong River 277, 573, 595, 598, 599
- mercury 462–4
- migratory species
- marine living resources 738–40
- military activities 214–18
- Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005
- humanity’s ecological footprint 618
- mobile phones
- monitoring
- environmental impact assessments 199
- marine environment 473–6
- nature conservation 634–5
- treaty supervision and compliance 252–3
- Montevideo Programme 69
- Montreal Protocol 1987
- treaty supervision and compliance 256–7
- Moon Treaty 135
- Moselle Commission 579
- most-favoured nation 775, 793
- p. 859↵multilateral environmental agreements
- standing to sue 274–6
- WTO agreements, and 784–6
- Nagoya Protocol 2010
- biodiversity 718–20
- international trade 799–800
- Nairobi Declaration 5
- national remedies, equal access to
- implementation of policy 328–30
- international law 325–6
- limitations of 330
- non-discrimination in international law 325–6
- principle 324–5
- regional provision 326–8
- natural resources
- common property 134–5
- common spaces 624
- exhaustible 782–4
- legal status 129–36
- shared 132
- nature
- role of law in protection of 621–7
- navigation, freedom of 423, 493, 505–6, 524, 538, 542–4, 576, 771, 772
- Nile, river 576, 579, 580, 598, 616
- no-fault liability 229–30, 233, 441–3
- non-compliance see compliance
- non-discrimination
- access to justice and 311
- human rights, application of 319
- national remedies, access to 324–7
- OECD, role of 84–5
- prior informed consent 457
- transboundary EIAs 187
- transboundary pollution and environmental harm 169–70
- non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
- autonomous treaty bodies 90–2
- human rights and 316–19
- International Union for the Conservation of Nature 103–4
- role of 102–3
- non-party claims
- nuclear damage 449–50
- non-State actors
- conclusions 354–5
- corporate environmental accountability 345–9
- environmental crimes
- crimes against international law 352–4
- enforcement through criminal law 350–1
- extraterritorial criminal jurisdiction 351–2
- introduction 349–50
- universal jurisdiction 352–4
- environmental rights 283–4
- equal access to national remedies
- implementation of policy 328–30
- international law 325–6
- limitations of 330
- non-discrimination in international law 325–6
- principle 324–5
- regional provision 326–8
- greening existing human rights
- environmental nuisances 303–6
- generally 302–3
- indigenous culture and the environment 306–7
- harmonization of environmental liability
- ILC Principles on Allocation of Loss for Transboundary Damage 338–41
- introduction 335–7
- Lugano Convention 1993 337–8
- polluter pays principle 341–5
- healthy, sustainable or ecologically sound environment, right to
- current international law 296
- generally 295–6
- integrating sustainable economic development and human rights 299–302
- pros and cons of 297–9
- human rights
- climate change and 292–5
- conclusions 321–2
- environment in human rights treaties 287–90
- environmental rights at UN human rights institutions 290–5
- extraterritorial application of human rights treaties 319–21
- greening existing human rights 302–7
- healthy, sustainable or ecologically sound environment, right to 295–302
- introduction 286–7
- Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 290–1
- participatory rights 307–19
- UNHRC special rapporteurs 291–2
- introduction 282–3
- national law, role of 284–5
- participatory rights
- Aarhus Convention 1998 310–14
- ECLAC Agreement 2018 314
- generally 307–10
- human-rights treaties 314–16
- non-governmental organisations and 316–19
- p. 860↵North America
- acid rain 168
- international watercourses
- allocation of water resources, principles of 575–7
- river pollution and permissible uses 582
- scope of international watercourse law 573
- marine pollution 523
- North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation 188
- North American Free Trade Agreement 112
- nuclear energy 439
- regional governance 9
- transboundary environmental litigation 322 see also Latin America and South America
- North Sea
- marine environment, pollution of from land-based sources 471–3
- marine pollution, prevention of 518–19
- Northeast Atlantic Fisheries Commission 519
- nuclear accidents 11, 36, 78, 162, 205, 217, 228, 231, 325, 431–7, 563
- Three Mile Island 408
- nuclear damage
- civil liability for
- bringing claims under Conventions 448–9
- channelling liability 443–4
- introduction 438–40
- loss, allocation of 444–8
- no-fault liability 441–3
- non-party claims 449–50
- nuclear damage and environment 450
- scheme of Conventions 440–1
- civil liability for
- nuclear emergencies
- assistance 433–4
- notification 431–2
- nuclear energy
- conclusions 451–2
- environmental concern, emergence of 408–9
- International Atomic Energy Agency
- health and safety standards, legal effect of 412–15
- health and safety, powers of 411–12
- international inspectorate and review body, as 415–16
- objectives of 410–11
- international nuclear policy 406–8
- international regulation
- effectiveness of 425
- Euratom Treaty 1957 423–4
- international agreements on nuclear safety 416–23
- International Atomic Energy Agency 410–16
- International Labour Organization Convention 1960 425
- international regulatory bodies 423–5
- Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel and Radioactive Waste Management 1997 421–3
- Nuclear Safety Convention 1994 418–21
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 424–5
- introduction 405–6
- nuclear damage, civil liability for
- bringing claims under Conventions 448–9
- channelling liability 443–4
- introduction 438–40
- loss, allocation of 444–8
- no-fault liability 441–3
- non-party claims, 449–50
- nuclear damage and environment 450
- scheme of Conventions 440–1
- nuclear damage, State responsibility for
- law reform 437–8
- State claims 435–7
- strict or absolute liability 434–5
- Nuclear Safety Convention 1994 38, 165, 167, 178, 211, 417–23, 426, 429, 448
- Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 427
- Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 290–1
- p. 861↵offshore installations
- notification of emergencies at sea 554–5
- oil pollution
- marine pollution damage
- civil liability for oil pollution from ships 561–3
- oil liability and compensation scheme 564–6 see also marine pollution
- marine pollution damage
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
- international governance 83–5
- international nuclear policy 424–5
- Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe 470
- Organization of American States 46
- OSPAR Commission 470–2, 505, 518–19, 611, 770
- outer space 146, 151, 162, 165, 360, 407, 427, 430, 726
- ozone layer, protection of
- compliance 375–6
- Ozone Convention 1985 371–3
- revision 375–6
- Pacific Ocean
- nuclear energy
- IAEA safety inspections 415
- nuclear tests 407–8
- radioactive waste disposal 426–8
- State claims 435
- UN regional commissions 73
- wildlife conservation 622
- nuclear energy
- Paris Agreement 2015
- Paris Convention scheme
- nuclear damage, allocation of loss 445–7
- participatory rights
- Aarhus Convention 1998 310–14
- ECLAC Agreement 2018 314
- generally 307–10
- human-rights treaties 314–16
- non-governmental organisations and 316–19
- Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas 494, 539, 540
- patentability 803–5
- permitting
- nature conservation 627–9
- persistent organic pollutants 459–62
- pesticides 456–9, 786–7
- plant genetic resources 74, 80, 622, 624, 671
- plant protection 669–72
- polar bears 622, 656, 681, 769
- polluter pays principle 559–60
- environmental liability, harmonization of 341–5
- pollution
- atmospheric pollution
- conclusions 403
- customary law 361–2
- degradation of global atmosphere 357–9
- global environmental responsibility 361–2
- international policy 362–4
- introduction 356–7
- legal status of atmosphere 359–61
- ozone layer, protection of 371–8
- regulation of atmosphere 362–4
- marine pollution see marine pollution
- meaning 212–14
- transboundary air pollution
- Asia 371
- assessment of 369–71
- Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution 1979 366–8
- implementation 369–71
- introduction 364–6
- protocols to 1979 Convention 368–9
- transboundary pollution 588–92
- due diligence, alternatives to 169–70
- due diligence, obligation to use 163–7
- duty to prevent, reduce and control harm 159–63
- equitable balancing 167–9
- impermissible transboundary risks 167–9
- international jurisprudence 156–9
- International Law Commission 154–6
- introduction 152–3
- non-discrimination 169–70
- Rio Declaration 1992 153 see also nuclear damage
- atmospheric pollution
- port states
- precautionary principle
- burden of proof of risk 176–7
- conclusions 183
- introduction 170–2
- legal status and implications 177–83
- Rio Declaration 1992 172–5
- prior informed consent
- Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent 456–9
- waste, international trade in 492–4
- p. 862↵private international law
- transboundary environmental litigation 330–5
- process and production methods
- international trade 794–6
- protected areas 70, 140, 185, 351, 519–21
- biological resources, use of 644
- establishment of 693
- watercourses 592
- protected species 94, 351, 765, 769 see also polar bears, seals, sharks, whales
- protection of the environment see environmental protection
- public awareness
- biosafety, conservation of 711–12
- public interest litigation 265–7
- public participation 73
- environmental impact assessments 194
- Rio Declaration 153
- sustainable development 55, 125 see also Aarhus Convention 1998 and participatory rights
- radioactive waste
- dumping at sea 482–3
- Rapid Response Facility 633
- ray fish 742–4
- recycling and repackaging
- precautionary measures 180
- regional seas
- remedies
- environmental damage
- compensation 239–42
- introduction 235–6
- preventative remedies 236–9
- restitution 236–9
- local remedies rule 233–5
- national remedies, equal access to 324–30
- environmental damage
- reporting obligations
- nature conservation 634–5
- treaty supervision and compliance 252–3
- research 253
- restitution 236–9
- Rhine
- arbitration 611
- Convention on the Protection of the Rhine 609–11
- International North Sea Conference, and 611
- OSPAR Commission, and 611
- Rhine Chemicals Convention 609
- Rhine Chlorides Convention 610
- Rhine Commission Agreement 609
- right to water 599–600
- Rio Conference 12, 39, 68, 75, 105, 115, 125, 131, 142–3, 157, 231, 363, 380, 455, 478, 488–9, 501, 505–7, 559, 573, 698, 719, 724, 744–5, 750, 767
- riparian rights 576
- risk see environmental risk
- river pollution 142, 581–3, 592, 601–2, 608
- Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent 456–9
- salmon 616, 740–2, 746, 757
- salvage 78, 217, 512, 552–3, 555–6, 560
- sanitary and phytosanitary measures 787–91
- scientific organizations 100–2
- seabed
- continental shelf
- Convention on the Continental Shelf 1958 26
- marine living resources 736–7
- pollutants and waste 485
- CoastalState rights and obligations 203
- deep seabed
- differentiated responsibility 151
- extraterritorial criminal jurisdiction 351
- legal status of natural resources 64
- public interest litigation 265
- State responsibility 557
- marine pollution, prevention of 547–9
- continental shelf
- seals 503, 622, 654–6, 725, 730 see also marine mammals
- Security Council of the UN 66–7
- sewage
- pollutants and toxic waste 478
- treatment 180
- shared resources 576–7
- sharks 742–4
- ships
- p. 863↵emergencies at sea, notification of 554–5
- Sierra Club 102
- Small Grants Programme 652
- soft law 35–6
- Southern Africa Development Community
- shared watercourses 614–15
- South America 573, 622 see also Latin America and North America
- sovereignty
- common concern and 144
- emergency measures 208
- international watercourses 575–6
- natural resources 130–1
- special procedures 267–70
- standing to sue
- environmental damage, liability for 242–6
- multilateral environmental agreements 274–6
- State responsibility
- adjudication of treaty disputes
- introduction 271–2
- Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty on Environmental Protection 274
- standing to sue under MEAs 274–6
- UNCLOS 1982 272–3
- conclusions 280–1
- diplomatic methods of dispute resolution
- conciliation and inquiry 278–9
- good offices 278
- introduction 277
- mediation 278
- environmental damage, liability for
- basis of State responsibility 223–4
- conclusions 246–7
- development of law 230–3
- fault and due diligence 224–5
- interaction of civil liability and interstate claims 233–5
- international law 225–30
- International Law Commission’s articles on liability 232–3
- local remedies rule 233–5
- remedies 235–42
- standing to bring claims 242–6
- transboundary harm 230–2
- utility of State responsibility 246–7
- environmental damage, remedies for
- compensation 239–42
- introduction 235–6
- preventative remedies 236–9
- restitution 236–9
- introduction 220–3
- settlement of international environmental disputes
- adjudication 271–6
- choice of forum 264–5
- conciliation and inquiry 278–9
- diplomatic methods 277–9
- good offices 278
- international environmental court 267–70
- litigation, role of 260–4
- mediation 278
- public interest litigation 265–7
- special procedures 267–70
- treaty supervisory bodies 276–7
- treaty supervision and compliance
- Aarhus Convention Compliance Committee 257–8
- autonomous treaty bodies 251–2
- breach of treaty 247–9
- fact-finding 253
- inspection 253–4
- Kyoto Protocol Compliance Committee 258–60
- monitoring 252–3
- Montreal Protocol 1987 256–7
- non-compliance 247–9
- non-compliance procedures 254–60
- reporting obligations 252–3
- research 253
- supervisory techniques 252–4
- treaty supervisory bodies 249–52
- trusteeship 251
- waste, international trade in 497–8
- adjudication of treaty disputes
- Stockholm Conference 6, 39, 50, 63, 68, 76, 130, 161–2, 200, 213, 219, 227, 231, 362, 407, 408, 479, 506, 645
- supervision
- climate change 395–8
- institutional supervision
- Biodiversity Convention 1992 707–8
- endangered species, international trade in 665–7
- migratory species of wild animals 656–8
- waste, international trade in 496–7
- treaty supervision
- Aarhus Convention Compliance Committee 257–8
- autonomous treaty bodies 251–2
- breach of treaty 247–9
- fact-finding 253
- inspection 253–4
- Kyoto Protocol Compliance Committee 258–60
- monitoring 252–3
- Montreal Protocol 1987 256–7
- p. 864↵non-compliance 247–9
- non-compliance procedures 254–60
- reporting obligations 252–3
- research 253
- supervisory techniques 252–4
- treaty supervisory bodies 249–52
- trusteeship 251
- sustainable development
- elements of
- integration of environmental protection and economic development 117–19
- inter-generational equity 121–3
- intra-generational equity 124
- procedural elements 125
- right to development 119–20
- sustainable utilization and conservation of natural resources 120
- influence on law 125–6
- international environmental policy
- concept of 57–62
- UN Conference on Environment and Development 1992 52–5
- UN Conference on Sustainable Development 2012 56–7
- World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 55
- international watercourses
- sustainable development and water resources law 596–9
- sustainable utilization and right to water 599–600
- marine biodiversity 767–8
- obligation to develop sustainably 127–9
- right to 116–17
- elements of
- sustainable environment, right to
- current international law 296
- generally 295–6
- integrating sustainable economic development and human rights 299–302
- pros and cons of 297–9
- sustainable use
- Biodiversity Convention 1992 694
- Fish Stocks Agreement 1995 750–2
- technical barriers to trade 787–91
- technology transfer 96, 149–50
- international trade 805–6
- nuclear energy 406
- sustainable development 56
- territorial integrity
- international watercourses 576
- terrritorial sea
- marine living resources 732
- territorial sovereignty
- international watercourses 575–6
- toxic and persistent pollutants
- chemicals and pesticides, international trade in 456–9
- conclusions 500–2
- dumping at sea see dumping at sea
- international policy 454–6
- introduction 456
- key issues 453–4
- marine pollution see marine pollution
- mercury 462–4
- persistent organic pollutants 459–62
- Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent 456–9
- trade, control of
- biosafety 715–16
- endangered species, international trade in 661–3
- trade restrictions
- eco-labels 792–3
- hazardous chemicals and pesticides 786–7
- hazardous waste 787
- improving global environment 794–6
- recycling and repackaging 791–2
- sanitary and phytosanitary measures 787–91
- technical barriers to trade 787–91
- transboundary air pollution
- Asia 371
- assessment of 369–71
- Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution 1979 366–8
- implementation 369–71
- introduction 364–6
- protocols to 1979 Convention 368–9 see also atmospheric pollution
- transboundary co-operation
- emergency notification, response and assistance 206–8
- international watercourses
- consultation 601–6
- emergency co-operation 606–7
- information exchange 606
- negotiation in cases of risk 601–6
- notification 601–6
- introduction 200–2
- notification and consultation of transboundary risk 202–6
- transboundary harm see environmental harm and transboundary pollution
- transboundary litigation
- choice of law 330–2
- equal access to national remedies 324–30
- forum shopping 332–5
- introduction 322–3
- jurisdiction 332–5
- private international law issues 330–5
- p. 865↵transboundary nuclear risks see environmental risk and nuclear energy
- transboundary pollution
- environmental harm and
- due diligence, alternatives to 169–70
- due diligence, obligation to use 163–7
- duty to prevent, reduce and control harm 159–63
- equitable balancing 167–9
- impermissible transboundary risks 167–9
- international jurisprudence 156–9
- International Law Commission 154–6
- introduction 152–3
- non-discrimination 169–70
- prevention of 588–92
- Rio Declaration 1992 153
- environmental harm and
- transboundary risks see environmental risk
- transboundary waters 574 see international watercourses and water, international regulation of
- treaty compliance see compliance
- treaty supervisory bodies
- autonomous treaty bodies 251–2
- generally 249–51
- international environmental disputes 276–7
- trusteeship 251
- TRIPS Agreement
- trust funds 96, 111, 149, 463, 632
- trusteeship 10, 40, 86, 98–9, 122, 136, 251
- tuna 178, 725–7, 729, 735, 739–40, 746, 757–8, 783
- UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982
- adjudication of treaty disputes 272–3
- marine biodiversity 772–3
- marine living resources
- anadromous species 740–2
- archipelagic waters 732
- catadromous species 742
- competence over conservation 731–8
- continental shelf 736–7
- deep seabed 737–8
- endangered species 742–4
- exclusive economic zone 732–5
- general approach 731
- high seas 735–6
- highly migratory species 738–40
- rays 742–4
- sharks 742–4
- species approach 738–44
- terrritorial sea 732–8
- marine mammals 764
- UNEP regional Seas Programme
- UNEPCairo Guidelines 20
- development of international environmental law, role in 69–71 See also UNEP Bali Guidelines 309
- ECOLEX database 104
- establishment 63
- Global Environment Facility 82
- Global Environmental Outlook 618
- global warming 402
- good offices 278
- Governing Council 58
- Great Apes Survival Project 633
- green economy 56
- hazardous wastes, transport of 20
- human rights 286
- offshore mineral exploration 558
- ozone layer, protection of 371
- participatory rights 314
- principles of law 27–8
- scientific organizations 100–2
- soft law 35–6
- status of 71
- sustainable development 33
- weather modification 361
- World Conservation Strategy 104 see also United Nations
- UN Watercourses Convention 1997
- common management 580–1
- emergency co-operation 607
- information exchange 606
- protection of ecosystems 592–6
- relevance of environmental agreements 596
- sustainable development and water resources law 597–8
- sustainable utilization and right to water 599–600
- transboundary environmental co-operation 601–6
- transboundary pollution and environmental harm 588–92 see also United Nations
- UNECE Watercourses Convention 1992
- common management 580
- protection of ecosystems 595
- relevance of environmental agreements 596
- sustainable utilization and right to water 599
- transboundary environmental cooperation 603
- transboundary pollution and environmental harm 591
- p. 866↵United Nations
- Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
- international watercourses 600
- conference declarations 33–5
- Conference on Environment and Development 1992 52–5
- Conference on Human Environment 1972 50–2
- Conference on Sustainable Development 2012 56–7
- Economic and Social Council 67
- environmental competence 62–3
- Environment Programme see UN Environment Programme
- Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992 380–4, 400–1 see also climate change
- General Assembly resolutions 33–5
- global environmental organization, as 71
- Millennium Development Goals 571
- principal organs 63–7
- regional commissions 73
- Security Council 66–7
- specialized agencies 72
- Water Conference Mar Del Plata Action Plan 580
- Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
- US–Canadian International Joint Commission
- waste, international regulation of
- conclusions 500–2
- dumping at sea
- enforcement 484–5
- geo engineering and 483–4
- licensing 484–5
- London Dumping Convention, assessment of 486–7
- meaning 481–2
- permissibility of 479–80
- prohibition, reasons for 481
- radioactive waste 482–3
- regional treaties 486
- international policy 454–6
- international trade
- Basel Convention 1989, assessment of 499–500
- Basel Convention 1989, scope of 491–2
- civil liability 497–8
- environmentally sound management 494–6
- implementation 496–7
- permissibility of trade in hazardous wastes and substances 487–91
- prior informed consent, requirement of 492–4
- State responsibility 497–8
- supervisory institutions 496–7
- key issues 453–4
- water resources
- allocation, principle of
- common management 579–81
- equitable utilization 576–8
- territorial integrity 576
- territorial sovereignty 575–6
- sustainable development and 596–9
- allocation, principle of
- watercourses see international watercourses
- weather modification 361
- wetlands of international importance, Convention on
- assessment of 643–4
- compliance 642–3
- implementation 642–3
- listing 639–42
- scope of 637–9
- wise use of wetland sites 639–42
- whales 8, 102, 137, 618, 621–2, 655–6, 724, 730, 739, 764–6, 769
- wildlife
- World Bank 46, 47, 54,63, 65–6, 111, 118–19, 808
- corporate investment 348
- Environmental Assessment Directive 185–6
- Global Environment Facility 80–3
- green economy 56
- mediation 278
- non-compliance 256
- sustainable development 125
- World Charter for Nature 27, 104, 137, 349
- World Commission on Environment and Development 6
- World Conservation Strategy 104
- World Heritage Convention
- assessment of 651
- compliance 649–51
- conservation obligations 648–9
- listing process 645–8
- scope of 645
- World Intellectual Property Organization 74, 80, 706, 799–800
- World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 55, 719
- World Trade Organization
- international governance 78–80
- international trade
- Agreement on Trade‑Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights see TRIPs Agreement
- dispute settlement 808–10
- generally 775–8
- Zambezi river system 579
